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Charles II of Spain

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Charles II of Spain
Portrait by Juan Carreño de Miranda, c. 1685
Portrait by Juan Carreño de Miranda, c. 1685
King of Spain
Reign 17 September 1665 – 1 November 1700
Predecessor Philip IV
Successor Philip V
Regent Mariana of Austria (1665–1675)
Born 6 November 1661
Madrid, Crown of Castile, Spain
Died 1 November 1700 (aged 38)
Madrid, Crown of Castile, Spain
Burial Monasterio del Escorial
Spouses Marie Louise d'Orléans
(m. 1679; died 1689)
Maria Anna of Neuburg
(m. 1689)
House Habsburg
Father Philip IV of Spain
Mother Mariana of Austria
Religion Catholicism

Charles II[1][2] (6 November 1661 – 1 November 1700) was King of Spain from 1665 to 1700. The last monarch from the House of Habsburg, which had ruled Spain since 1516, his death without children resulted in the 1701 to 1714 War of the Spanish Succession.

For reasons still debated, Charles experienced lengthy periods of ill health throughout his life. This made the question of who would succeed him central to European diplomacy for much of his reign, with one historian writing that "from the day of his birth, they were waiting for his death".[3]

The two candidates for the succession were Charles of Austria, and Philip of Anjou, the 16-year-old grandson of Louis XIV of France. Charles made the latter his heir shortly before dying in November 1700, but the acquisition of an undivided Spanish Empire by either threatened the European balance of power and resulted in war.

Birth and upbringing

Born on 6 November 1661, Charles was the only surviving son of Philip IV of Spain and his second wife, his niece Mariana of Austria. Marriage within the same extended family was then common among the nobility,[4] but the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were unusual in the extent to which they followed this practice. Of eleven marriages contracted by Spanish monarchs between 1450 and 1661, most contained some element of consanguinity, Philip and Mariana being one of two unions between an uncle and his niece.[5][6] This policy may also have been driven by limpieza de sangre or "blood purity" statutes enacted in the early 16th century, which remained in force until the 1860s.[7]

Intramarriage accentuated the so-called "Habsburg jaw", a physical characteristic common in both Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. One contemporary reported this was so pronounced in Charles that he swallowed his food without thoroughly chewing, leading to frequent stomach problems.[8] A 2019 study based on an analysis of Habsburg portraits concluded this feature was likely due to a recessive trait, but in the absence of genetic material, such claims remain speculative.[9]

The precise causes of Charles's ill-health remain disputed, especially as neither his elder sister, Margaret, who married her maternal uncle Leopold I, nor their child and his niece María, had similar health issues.[10] Based on contemporary accounts, some modern researchers suggest hydrocephalus derived from a herpetic infection incurred as an infant.[11]

After his birth, he was entrusted to the royal governess Mariana Engracia Álvarez de Toledo Portugal y Alfonso-Pimentel.[12] Under her careful supervision, he survived childhood attacks of measles, chickenpox, rubella and smallpox, any one of which was then potentially fatal.[13] He also had rickets, which left him unable to walk unaided until he was four and required him to wear leg braces until the age of five.[14][15]

Despite these physical challenges, suggestions that Charles remained largely uneducated into his teens are incorrect. Ramos del Manzano, a legal expert from the University of Salamanca, was appointed his tutor when he was six.[16] From the age of 12, he received lessons in music from Juan del Vado and mathematics from José Zaragoza, a professor at the Colegio Imperial de Madrid.[17]

The extent of his physical and mental disabilities is hard to assess, since little is known for certain, and many claims are either unproven or incorrect. While prone to illness, he was extremely active physically, and contemporaries reported he spent much of his time hunting.[18] One often cited example of his alleged mental incapacity is the period he spent sleeping with his father's disinterred body; this was in fact done under instructions from Mariana, whose doctors advised this would help him produce an heir.[19]

Although reputedly subject to bouts of depression, his participation in government and reports from his council and observers including the French ambassador indicate his mental capacities remained intact.[20] A report from 1691 submitted by an envoy of the Sultan of Morocco, relates that he was received by Charles himself, who played a full part in the discussions.[21] Costanzo Operti, a Savoyard diplomat who attended regular audiences with Charles during the Nine Years' War, described him as affable and generous but shy and lacking self-confidence, characteristics noted by other foreign diplomats.[22]

Reign

Regency years

Since Charles was a legal minor when Philip died on 17 September 1665, Mariana was appointed Queen Regent by the Council of Castile. The Spanish Empire remained an enormous global confederation, but its economic supremacy was challenged by England and the Dutch Republic, and its position in Europe weakened by the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France. Managing these challenges was hampered by Mariana's power struggle with Charles's illegitimate elder half-brother, John Joseph of Austria, known as Don Juan. Enacting reforms was complicated because Spain was a personal union between the Crown of Castile and Crown of Aragon, each with very distinct political cultures and traditions.[23][24]

While infighting between those who ruled in Charles's name during his regency did little to help, it is debatable how far they can be held responsible for long-term trends predating his reign. The monarchy proved remarkably resilient, and when Charles died, remained largely intact.[25] However, government finances were in perpetual crisis, the Crown declaring bankruptcy nine times between 1557 and 1666, including 1647, 1652, 1662, and 1666.[26]

As her husband Philip had done, Mariana ruled through a "valido",[27] the first being her personal confessor and fellow Austrian, Juan Everardo Nithard.[28] His most urgent task was ending the costly wars with France and Portugal, which he duly achieved through the 1668 treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle and Lisbon. Despite acknowledging their necessity, in February 1669 Don Juan forced Mariana to dismiss Nithard. She replaced him with Fernando de Valenzuela, a member of the lower hidalgo class, whose appointment was resented by the Grandees who normally filled such positions.[29]

In 1673, Spain was drawn into the Franco-Dutch War, placing additional strain on the economy, and Don Juan renewed efforts to remove Mariana as Regent. A month before Charles became a legal adult on 6 November 1675, he indicated his intention to take control of government, supported by his brother. When the Regency Council requested a two-year extension of their office on 4 November, Charles initially refused, but was later pressured into accepting. He was also forced to issue a Royal Decree ordering Don Juan to leave Madrid.[30]

Don Juan finally gained control of the government in January 1678 and exiled Valenzuela to the Philippines. His first action was to make peace with France in the 1678 Treaties of Nijmegen, with Spain ceding Franche-Comté and areas of the Spanish Netherlands returned in 1668.[31] Seeking to minimise future conflict between the two countries, in August 1679 Don Juan brokered a match between Charles and the 17-year-old Marie Louise of Orléans, eldest niece of Louis XIV and daughter of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans. Arranging the marriage was Don Juan's last significant act; he died shortly before it took place in November 1679.[32] Some members of the Spanish government initially opposed the marriage, but ultimately accepted it since peace with France was more important.[33]

In February 1680, Juan Francisco de la Cerda, 8th Duke of Medinaceli became the new valido. He clashed with Marie-Louise over the alleged influence exerted over her by the French ambassador, Pierre de Villars, who was expelled from Madrid in 1681, badly affecting the relationship between the two.[34] Medinaceli was further undermined by economic problems and the loss of Luxembourg following the 1683 War of the Reunions. In June 1684, he sought to bolster his support by appointing the Count of Oropesa as President of the Council of Castile, the second most powerful position in the state. However, continuing ill-health led him to resign in April 1685, with Oropesa taking over as de facto valido.[35] He retained this position until 1690.[36]

Economy

The so-called "Little Ice Age" of the 17th century was a period of crisis throughout Europe, leading to poor harvests and economic decline.[37] Spain was especially affected, due in part to the parlous economic situation, particularly in Castile, where the population dropped from 6.5 million in 1600 to fewer than 5 million in 1680, whilst figures for Spain as a whole were 8.5 to 6.6 million.[38] This was exacerbated by a series of wars with France and the need to defend the Empire, which were a constant drain on public expenditure. In 1663, Philip IV had converted state debt into government bonds (juros) but high rates of interest meant taxes were often assigned to creditors years in advance to pay current liabilities. Although silver bullion imports from the Americas increased, the vast majority went to paying off foreign debtors.[39]

The globalisation of the Spanish trading system meant foreign interests often had the most to lose from its collapse. By the 1670s, exports were primarily controlled by Dutch and English merchants, while the domestic economy relied on French labour and imported wheat. A senior colonial official observed in 1687 that the Empire continued to exist "only because it enables the English, Dutch and French to exploit [it] more cheaply".[40]

One consequence of Spanish economic and demographic weakness during this period was the inability of the Spanish Navy to protect their own merchant shipping. In response, the government issued royal decrees in 1674 and 1692 establishing a formal system of privateering in the Spanish coastal territories, known as the guarda costa outside Europe. Hundreds of privateers were commissioned during the last decade of Charles' rule, a policy continued by his successors.[41] Charles himself acquired at least one corsair ship in 1684, the San Antonio, in order to encourage private initiative.[42]

In the 1680s, Spanish officials issued a series of drastic deflationary decrees, revaluing the coinage at 25% of its previous value.[43] The immediate impact was the total disruption of commerce and collapse of financial credit; in response, debtors were given three months to repay government debts using the existing rate, later extended to six months. Having stabilised the position, however, in 1686 the coinage was readjusted to a more favourable rate and thereafter left unaltered.[44]

Succession conflict and death

Blamed for Charles's failure to produce an heir, Marie Louise was subjected to primitive fertility treatments that caused her severe health problems.[45] She died in February 1689, shortly after the outbreak of the Nine Years' War with France, probably from appendicitis.[46][47] A new wife was selected from a family famous for its fertility, Maria Anna of Neuburg, daughter of Philip William, Elector Palatine, and sister-in-law to Emperor Leopold.[48] A proxy marriage took place in August 1689 before a formal ceremony in May 1690.[47]

Maria Anna also failed to produce an heir, almost certainly because Charles was incapable of doing so, as his autopsy later revealed his sole remaining testicle was atrophied.[49] His mother died on 16 May 1696, by which time Charles' health was clearly failing, making the succession increasingly urgent. Since the Crown of Spain passed according to cognatic primogeniture, it could be inherited through the female line. This enabled Charles' sisters Maria Theresa and Margaret Theresa to pass their rights to the children of their marriages with Louis XIV and Emperor Leopold. However, to prevent a union between Spain and France, Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights on her marriage, in return for which Louis was promised a dowry of 500,000 gold écus, a huge sum that was never paid.[50]

The Peace of Ryswick which ended the Nine Years' War in 1697 was the result of mutual exhaustion, and left the issue of the succession unresolved. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor reluctantly signed the treaty in October 1697, but viewed it as a temporary pause in hostilities.[51] Leopold and Margaret's daughter Maria Antonia had married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria, and they had a son before her death in 1692, Joseph Ferdinand. In the Treaty of The Hague (1698), England, France and the Dutch Republic attempted to impose a diplomatic solution by making him heir to the bulk of the Spanish monarchy, with France gaining Naples, Sicily and the Spanish province of Gipuzkoa. In return, Leopold's younger son Charles was made ruler of Milan, a possession considered vital to the security of Austria's southern border.[52]

The Spanish government refused to approve any division of their territories, although they accepted Joseph Ferdinand as Charles's successor.[53] The death of Joseph Ferdinand in 1699 from smallpox led to the Treaty of London (1700), which made Archduke Charles the new heir, with Spanish possessions in Europe split between France, Savoy and Austria. Charles altered his will in favour of the Archduke, but once again stipulated an undivided Spanish monarchy.[54] In September 1700, Charles fell ill and by 28 September he was no longer able to eat. Luis Manuel Fernández de Portocarrero persuaded him to appoint Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou, as his heir.[55] He died on 1 November 1700, at age 38. The autopsy records his "heart was the size of a peppercorn; his lungs corroded; his intestines rotten and gangrenous; he had a single testicle, black as coal, and his head was full of water."[56] The latter suggests hydrocephalus, a disease often associated with childhood measles, one of many illnesses contracted by Charles.[57] Philip was proclaimed king of Spain on 16 November 1700, and the War of the Spanish Succession formally began on 9 July 1701.[58]

Legacy

On 7 November 1693, a Royal Decree provided sanctuary in Spanish Florida for escaped slaves from the English Province of South Carolina.[59] Florida provided protection from storms in the Gulf of Mexico for Spanish merchant shipping. The decree was intended to bolster its population while undermining the neighbouring colony, which claimed the Spanish capital of St Augustine.[60] Formalised in 1733 by Philip V, it led to the founding in 1738 of Santa Teresa de Mose, the first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States.[61]

The Caroline Islands were named after Charles in 1666, as was the town of Charleroi in modern Belgium in 1686.[62] Decrees were also issued in his name approving universities in South America that still exist. In Peru, they included San Cristóbal, established in 1680, and the National University; in Guatemala, the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, the fourth-oldest university on the continent. Others included Santo Tomas Aquino in 1688, now part of the Central University of Ecuador, and finally in 1694 the Universidad de San Nicolás de Mira in Bogotá, Colombia.[63]

Though not as fond of the arts as his father, Charles employed artists such as the Italian painter Luca Giordano and Claudio Coello to decorate El Escorial. In 1690 the latter created one of the last and most significant examples of Spanish Baroque painting, Charles II adores the Holy Eucharist.[64]

Assessment

Charles's reign has been viewed as one of decline and decay, a foreign ambassador commenting in 1691 "it is incomprehensible how this monarchy survives".[40] More recent studies argue "both the myth of decline and an incapable king are simplistic and inexact", while historian Luis Ribot García suggests he was "neither so bewitched, nor so decadent" as previously figured.[65][66] Traditional historiography portrayed Charles as both ineffectual and mentally disabled, emblematic of the decline of Habsburg Spain after the wars of the 17th century. However, more recent scholarship argues these views were heavily influenced by their Bourbon successors, who used propaganda to diminish the previous dynasty.[67][68]

Despite their disastrous short-term impact, the financial measures taken by his advisors ended the chronic instability which had affected the Spanish currency throughout the 17th century, and helped drive sustainable economic growth.[69] Its long term has been considered historically remarkable, exemplified by the deflation achieved during his reign.[67] Many of the commercial and political policies initiated under Charles formed the basis for reforms enacted by his Bourbon successors.[70] Spain's role in the European wars of his reign has also been reevaluated, with his army still relevant in the various anti-French alliances, and retaining the empire's core territories.[68]

Heraldry

Ancestry

References

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Bibliography

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