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Cologne

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Cologne
Köln (German)
Kölle (Kölsch)
City
Kranhaus
Location of Cologne
Flag
Coat of arms
Cologne within North Rhine-Westphalia
Location of Cologne
Cologne
Location within Germany
Cologne
Location within North Rhine-Westphalia
Coordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″E / 50.93639°N 6.95278°E
Country Germany
State North Rhine-Westphalia
Admin. region Cologne
District Urban district
Founded 38 BC
Government
• Lord mayor (2025–30) Torsten Burmester[1] (SPD)
Area
• City 405.15 km2 (156.43 sq mi)
Elevation 37 m (121 ft)
Population
(2025-12-31)[2]
• City 1,025,523
• Density 2,531.2/km2 (6,555.8/sq mi)
• Urban 3,500,000 (Cologne Bonn)
• Metro 8,711,712 (Rhineland)
Time zone UTC+01:00 (CET)
• Summer (DST) UTC+02:00 (CEST)
Postal codes 50441–51149
Dialling codes 0221, 02203 (Porz)
Vehicle registration K
Website stadt-koeln.de

Cologne (/kəˈloʊn/ ⓘ kə-LOHN; German: Köln [kœln] ⓘ; Kölsch: Kölle [ˈkœ̂lə] ⓘ) is the fourth-most populous city of Germany and the largest city of the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city proper and over 3.1 million people in the Cologne Bonn urban region. Cologne is also part of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, the second biggest metropolitan region by GDP in the European Union. Centred on the left bank of the Rhine, Cologne is located on the River Rhine (Lower Rhine), about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of the North Rhine-Westphalia state capital Düsseldorf and 22 kilometres (14 mi) northwest of Bonn, the former capital of West Germany.

The city's medieval Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) was the world's tallest building from 1880 to 1890 and is today the third-tallest church and tallest cathedral in the world. It was constructed to house the Shrine of the Three Kings and is a globally recognized landmark and one of the most visited sights and pilgrimage destinations in Europe. The cityscape is further shaped by the Twelve Romanesque churches of Cologne. Cologne is famous for Eau de Cologne, which has been produced in the city since 1709; "cologne" has since come to be a generic term.

Cologne was founded and established in Germanic Ubii territory in the 1st century AD as the Roman Colonia Agrippina, hence its name.[3] Agrippina was later dropped (except in Latin), and Colonia became the name of the city in its own right, which developed into modern German as Köln. Cologne, the French version of the city's name, has become standard in English as well. Cologne functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and as the headquarters of the Roman military in the region until occupied by the Franks in 462. During the Middle Ages the city flourished due to its location on one of the most important major trade routes between eastern and western Europe (including the Brabant Road, Via Regia and Publica). Cologne was a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire and one of the major members of the trade union Hanseatic League. It was one of the largest European cities in medieval and renaissance times.

Prior to World War II, the city had undergone occupations by the French (1794–1815) and the British (1918–1926), and was part of Prussia beginning in 1815. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II.[4] The bombing reduced the population by 93% mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed around 80% of the millennia-old city centre. The post-war rebuilding has resulted in a mixed cityscape, restoring most major historic landmarks such as the city gates and churches (31 of them being Romanesque). The city nowadays consists of around 25% pre World War II buildings and boasts around 9,000 historic buildings.[5][6]

Cologne is a major cultural centre for the Rhineland; it hosts more than 30 museums and hundreds of galleries. There are many institutions of higher education, most notably the University of Cologne, one of Germany's largest universities;[7] the Technical University of Cologne, Germany's largest university of applied sciences; and the German Sport University Cologne. It hosts three Max Planck science institutes and is a major research hub for the aerospace industry, with the German Aerospace Center and the European Astronaut Centre headquarters. Lufthansa, Europe's largest airline,[8][9] has their main corporate headquarters in Cologne. It also has a significant chemical and automobile industry. Cologne Bonn Airport is a regional hub, the main airport for the region being Düsseldorf Airport. The Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows.

History

Roman Cologne

The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, a Cisrhenian Germanic tribe. In AD 50, the Romans founded Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Cologne) on the river Rhine,[3][10] a colonia which was named after Emperor Claudius and his wife, who was born here, Agrippina the Younger. In 85, the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior.[10] It was also known as Augusta Ubiorum.[11] Considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a 1,900-year-old Roman boat was discovered in late 2007.[12] From 260 to 271, Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, and Victorinus. In 310, under emperor Constantine I, a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it became one of the most important trade and production centres in the Roman Empire north of the Alps.[3] Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map.

Maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until it was occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462. Parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890.

After the destruction of the Second Temple in the Siege of Jerusalem and the associated dispersion (diaspora) of the Jews, there is evidence of a Jewish community in Cologne. In 321, Emperor Constantine approved the settlement of a Jewish community with all the freedoms of Roman citizens. It is assumed that it was located near the Marspforte within the city wall. The Edict of Constantine to the Jews is the oldest documented evidence in Germany.[13][14]

Middle Ages

Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire. Cunibert, made bishop of Cologne in 623, was an important advisor to the Merovingian King Dagobert I and served with domesticus Pepin of Landen as tutor to the king's son and heir Siegebert III, the future king of Austrasia. In 716, Charles Martel commanded an army for the first time and suffered the only defeat of his life when Chilperic II, King of Neustria, invaded Austrasia and the city fell to him in the Battle of Cologne. Charles fled to the Eifel mountains, rallied supporters and took the city back that same year after defeating Chilperic in the Battle of Amblève. Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period; under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop.[3] In the 843 Treaty of Verdun Cologne fell into the dominion of Lothair I's Middle Francia – later called Lotharingia (Lower Lorraine).

In 953, the archbishops of Cologne first gained noteworthy secular power when bishop Bruno I was appointed as duke by his brother Otto I, King of Germany.[15] In order to weaken the secular nobility, who threatened his power, Otto endowed Bruno and his archiepiscopal successors with the prerogatives of secular princes, thus establishing the Electorate of Cologne, formed by the temporal possessions of the archbishopric and included in the end a strip of territory along the left Bank of the Rhine east of Jülich, as well as the Duchy of Westphalia on the other side of the Rhine, beyond Berg and Mark. By the end of the 12th century, the Archbishop of Cologne was one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor. Besides being prince elector, he was Archchancellor of Italy as well, technically from 1238 and permanently from 1263 until 1803.

Following the Battle of Worringen in 1288, Cologne gained its independence from the archbishops and became a Free City. Archbishop Sigfried II von Westerburg was forced to reside in Bonn.[16] The archbishop nevertheless preserved the right of capital punishment. Thus the municipal council (though in strict political opposition towards the archbishop) depended upon him in all matters concerning criminal justice. This included torture, the sentence for which was only allowed to be handed down by the episcopal judge known as the greve. This legal situation lasted until the French conquest of Cologne.

Besides its economic and political significance Cologne also became an important centre of medieval pilgrimage, when Cologne's archbishop, Rainald of Dassel, gave the relics of the Three Wise Men to Cologne's cathedral in 1164 (after they had been taken from Milan). Besides the three magi Cologne preserves the relics of Saint Ursula and Albertus Magnus.[17]

Cologne's location on the river Rhine placed it at the intersection of the major trade routes between east and west as well as the main south–north Western Europe trade route, Venice to Netherlands; even by the mid-10th century, merchants in the town were already known for their prosperity and luxurious standard of living due to the availability of trade opportunities.[15] The intersection of these trade routes was the basis of Cologne's growth. By the end of the 12th century, Archbishop Phillip von Heinsberg enclosed the entire city with walls.[15] By 1300 the city population was 50,000–55,000.[18] Cologne was a member of the Hanseatic League in 1475, when Frederick III confirmed the city's imperial immediacy.[3] Cologne was so influential in regional commerce that its systems of weights and measurements (e.g. the Cologne mark) were used throughout Europe.[15]

Early modern history

The economic structures of medieval and early modern Cologne were characterised by the city's status as a major harbour and transport hub on the Rhine. Craftsmanship was organised by self-administering guilds, some of which were exclusive to women.

As a free imperial city, Cologne was a self-ruling state within the Holy Roman Empire, an imperial estate with seat and vote at the Imperial Diet, and as such had the right (and obligation) to contribute to the defense of the Empire and maintain its own military force. As they wore a red uniform, these troops were known as the Rote Funken (red sparks). These soldiers were part of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire ("Reichskontingent"). They fought in the wars of the 17th and 18th century, including the wars against revolutionary France in which the small force was almost completely wiped out in combat. The tradition of these troops is preserved as a military persiflage by Cologne's most outstanding carnival society, the Rote Funken.[19]

The Free Imperial City of Cologne must not be confused with the Electorate of Cologne, which was a state of its own within the Holy Roman Empire. Since the second half of the 16th century, the majority of archbishops were drawn from the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty. Due to the free status of Cologne, the archbishops were usually not allowed to enter the city. Thus they took up residence in Bonn and later in Brühl on the Rhine. As members of an influential and powerful family, and supported by their outstanding status as electors, the archbishops of Cologne repeatedly challenged and threatened the free status of Cologne during the 17th and 18th centuries, resulting in complicated affairs, which were handled by diplomatic means and propaganda as well as by the supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire.

From the 19th century until World War I

Cologne lost its status as a free city during the French period. According to the Treaty of Lunéville (1801), all the territories of the Holy Roman Empire on the left bank of the Rhine were officially incorporated into the French Republic (which had already occupied Cologne in 1794). Thus this region later became part of Napoleon's Empire. Cologne was part of the French Département Roer (named after the river Roer, German: Rur) with Aachen (French: Aix-la-Chapelle) as its capital. The French modernised public life, for example, by introducing the Napoleonic Code and removing the old elites from power. The Napoleonic Code remained in use on the left bank of the Rhine until 1900, when a unified civil code (the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) was introduced in the German Empire. In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, Cologne was made part of the Kingdom of Prussia, first in the Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg and then the Rhine Province.

The permanent tensions between the Catholic Rhineland and the overwhelmingly Protestant Prussian state repeatedly escalated with Cologne being in the focus of the conflict. In 1837, the archbishop of Cologne, Clemens August von Droste-Vischering, was arrested and imprisoned for two years after a dispute over the legal status of marriages between Catholics and Protestants (Mischehenstreit). In 1874, during the Kulturkampf, Archbishop Paul Melchers was imprisoned before taking asylum in the Netherlands. These conflicts alienated the Catholic population from Berlin and contributed to a deeply felt anti-Prussian resentment, which was still significant after World War II, when the former mayor of Cologne, Konrad Adenauer, became the first West German chancellor.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Cologne absorbed numerous surrounding towns, and by World War I had already grown to 700,000 inhabitants. Industrialisation changed the city and spurred its growth. Vehicle and engine manufacturing was especially successful, though the heavy industry was less ubiquitous than in the Ruhr area. The cathedral, started in 1248 but abandoned around 1560, was eventually finished in 1880 not just as a place of worship but also as a German national monument celebrating the newly founded German empire and the continuity of the German nation since the Middle Ages. Some of this urban growth occurred at the expense of the city's historic heritage with much being demolished (for example, the city walls or the area around the cathedral) and sometimes replaced by contemporary buildings.

Cologne was designated as one of the Fortresses of the German Confederation.[20] It was turned into a heavily armed fortress (opposing the French and Belgian fortresses of Verdun and Liège) with two fortified belts surrounding the city, the remains of which can be seen to this day.[21] The military demands on what became Germany's largest fortress presented a significant obstacle to urban development, with forts, bunkers, and wide defensive dugouts completely encircling the city and preventing expansion; this resulted in a very densely built-up area within the city itself.

During World War I Cologne was the target of several minor air raids but suffered no significant damage. Cologne was occupied by the British Army of the Rhine until 1926, under the terms of the Armistice and the subsequent Versailles Peace Treaty.[22] In contrast with the harsh behaviour of the French occupation troops in Germany, the British forces were more lenient to the local population. Konrad Adenauer, the mayor of Cologne from 1917 until 1933 and later a West German chancellor, acknowledged the political impact of this approach, especially since Britain had opposed French demands for a permanent Allied occupation of the entire Rhineland.

As part of the demilitarisation of the Rhineland, the city's fortifications had to be dismantled. This was an opportunity to create two green belts (Grüngürtel) around the city by converting the fortifications and their fields of fire into large public parks. This was not completed until 1933. In 1919 the University of Cologne, closed by the French in 1798, was reopened. This was considered to be a replacement for the loss of the University of Strasbourg on the west bank of the Rhine, which reverted to France with the rest of Alsace. Cologne prospered during the Weimar Republic (1919–33), and progress was made especially in public governance, city planning, housing and social affairs. Social housing projects were considered exemplary and were copied by other German cities. Cologne competed to host the Olympics, and a modern sports stadium was erected at Müngersdorf. When the British occupation ended, the prohibition of civil aviation was lifted and Cologne Butzweilerhof Airport soon became a hub for national and international air traffic, second in Germany only to Berlin Tempelhof Airport.

Nazi era and World War II

The democratic parties lost the local elections in Cologne in March 1933 to the Nazi Party and other extreme-right parties. The Nazis then arrested the Communist and Social Democrats members of the city assembly, and Mayor Adenauer was dismissed. Compared to some other major cities, however, the Nazis never gained decisive support in Cologne. (Significantly, the number of votes cast for the Nazi Party in Reichstag elections had always been the national average.)[23][24] By 1939, the population had risen to 772,221 inhabitants.[25]

During World War II, Cologne was a Military Area Command Headquarters (Militärbereichshauptkommandoquartier) for Wehrkreis VI (headquartered at Münster). Cologne was under the command of Lieutenant-General Freiherr Roeder von Diersburg, who was responsible for military operations in Bonn, Siegburg, Aachen, Jülich, Düren, and Monschau. Cologne was home to the 211th Infantry Regiment and the 26th Artillery Regiment.

The Allies dropped 44,923.2 tons of bombs on the city during World War II, destroying 61% of its built-up area. During the Bombing of Cologne in World War II, Cologne endured 262 air raids[26] by the Western Allies, which caused approximately 20,000 civilian casualties and almost completely wiped out the central part of the city. During the night of 31 May 1942, Cologne was the target of "Operation Millennium", the first 1,000 bomber raid by the Royal Air Force in World War II. 1,046 heavy bombers attacked their target with 1,455 tons of explosives, approximately two-thirds of which were incendiary.[27] This raid lasted about 75 minutes, destroyed 600 acres (243 ha) of built-up area (61%),[28] killed 486 civilians and made 59,000 people homeless. The devastation was recorded by Hermann Claasen from 1942 until the end of the war, and presented in his exhibition and book of 1947 Singing in the furnace. Cologne – Remains of an old city.[29]

Cologne was taken by the American First Army in early March 1945 during the Invasion of Germany after a battle.[30][31] By the end of the war, the population of Cologne had been reduced by 95%. This loss was mainly caused by a massive evacuation of the people to more rural areas. The same happened in many other German cities in the last two years of war. By the end of 1945, however, the population had already recovered to approximately 450,000.[32] By the end of the war, essentially all of Cologne's pre-war Jewish population of 11,000 had been deported or killed by the Nazis.[33] The six synagogues of the city were destroyed. The synagogue on Roonstraße was rebuilt in 1959.[34]

Post-war and Cold War eras

Despite Cologne's status as the largest city in the region, nearby Düsseldorf was chosen as the political capital of the federated state of North Rhine-Westphalia. With Bonn being chosen as the provisional federal capital (provisorische Bundeshauptstadt) and seat of the government of the Federal Republic of Germany (then informally West Germany), Cologne benefited by being sandwiched between two important political centres. The city became–and still is–home to a number of federal agencies and organizations. After reunification in 1990, Berlin was made the capital of Germany.

In 1945 architect and urban planner Rudolf Schwarz called Cologne the "world's greatest heap of rubble". Schwarz designed the master plan for reconstruction in 1947, which included the construction of several new thoroughfares through the city centre, especially the Nord-Süd-Fahrt ("North-South-Drive"). The master plan took into consideration the fact that even shortly after the war a large increase in automobile traffic could be anticipated. Plans for new roads had already, to a certain degree, evolved under the Nazi administration, but the actual construction became easier when most of the city centre was in ruins.

The destruction of 95% of the city centre, including the famous Twelve Romanesque churches such as St. Gereon, Great St. Martin, St. Maria im Kapitol and several other monuments in World War II, meant a tremendous loss of cultural treasures. The rebuilding of those churches and other landmarks such as the Gürzenich event hall was not undisputed among leading architects and art historians at that time, but in most cases, civil intention prevailed. The reconstruction lasted until the 1990s, when the Romanesque church of St. Kunibert was finished.

In 1959, the city's population reached pre-war numbers again. It then grew steadily, exceeding 1 million for about one year from 1975. It remained just below that until mid-2010, when it exceeded 1 million again.

Post-reunification

In the 1980s and 1990s Cologne's economy prospered for two main reasons. The first was the growth in the number of media companies, both in the private and public sectors; they are especially catered for in the newly developed Media Park, which creates a strong visual focal point in Cologne's city centre and includes the KölnTurm, one of Cologne's most prominent high-rise buildings. The second was the permanent improvement of the diverse traffic infrastructure, which made Cologne one of the most easily accessible metropolitan areas in Central Europe.

Due to the economic success of the Cologne Trade Fair, the city arranged a large extension to the fair site in 2005. At the same time the original buildings, which date back to the 1920s, were rented out to RTL, Germany's largest private broadcaster, as their new corporate headquarters.

Cologne was the focus of the 2015-16 New Year's Eve sexual assaults in Germany, with over 500 women reporting that they were sexually assaulted by persons of African and Arab appearance.[35][36]

Geography

The metropolitan area encompasses over 405 square kilometres (156 square miles), extending around a central point that lies at 50° 56' 33 latitude and 6° 57' 32 longitude. The city's highest point is 118 m (387 ft) above sea level (the Monte Troodelöh) and its lowest point is 37.5 m (123 ft) above sea level (the Worringer Bruch).[37] The city of Cologne lies within the larger area of the Cologne Lowland, a cone-shaped area of the central Rhineland that lies between Bonn, Aachen and Düsseldorf.

Districts

Cologne is divided into 9 boroughs (Stadtbezirke) and 85 districts (Stadtteile):[38]

Innenstadt (Stadtbezirk 1)
Altstadt-Nord, Altstadt-Süd, Neustadt-Nord, Neustadt-Süd, Deutz
Rodenkirchen (Stadtbezirk 2)
Bayenthal, Godorf, Hahnwald, Immendorf, Marienburg, Meschenich, Raderberg, Raderthal, Rodenkirchen, Rondorf, Sürth, Weiß, Zollstock
Lindenthal (Stadtbezirk 3)
Braunsfeld, Junkersdorf, Klettenberg, Lindenthal, Lövenich, Müngersdorf, Sülz, Weiden, Widdersdorf
Ehrenfeld (Stadtbezirk 4)
Bickendorf, Bocklemünd/Mengenich, Ehrenfeld, Neuehrenfeld, Ossendorf, Vogelsang
Nippes (Stadtbezirk 5)
Bilderstöckchen, Longerich, Mauenheim, Niehl, Nippes, Riehl, Weidenpesch 		File:Koeln bezirke1.png Chorweiler (Stadtbezirk 6)
Blumenberg, Chorweiler, Esch/Auweiler, Fühlingen, Heimersdorf, Lindweiler, Merkenich, Pesch, Roggendorf/Thenhoven, Seeberg, Volkhoven/Weiler, Worringen
Porz (Stadtbezirk 7)
Eil, Elsdorf, Ensen, Finkenberg, Gremberghoven, Grengel, Langel, Libur, Lind, Poll, Porz, Urbach, Wahn, Wahnheide, Westhoven, Zündorf
Kalk (Stadtbezirk 8)
Brück, Höhenberg, Humboldt/Gremberg, Kalk, Merheim, Neubrück, Ostheim, Rath/Heumar, Vingst
Mülheim (Stadtbezirk 9)
Buchforst, Buchheim, Dellbrück, Dünnwald, Flittard, Höhenhaus, Holweide, Mülheim, Stammheim

Climate

Located in the Rhine-Ruhr area, Cologne is one of the warmest cities in Germany. It has a temperate–oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) with cool winters and warm summers. It is also one of the cloudiest cities in Germany, with just 1,567.5 hours of sun a year. Its average annual temperature is 10.7 °C (51 °F): 15.4 °C (60 °F) during the day and 6.1 °C (43 °F) at night. In January, the mean temperature is 3.0 °C (37 °F), while the mean temperature in July is 19.0 °C (66 °F). The record high temperature of 40.3 °C (105 °F) happened on 25 July 2019 during the July 2019 European heat wave in which Cologne saw three consecutive days over 38.0 °C (100 °F). Especially the inner urban neighbourhoods experience a greater number of hot days, as well as significantly higher temperatures during nighttime compared to the surrounding area (including the airport, where temperatures are classified).[39] Still temperatures can vary noticeably over the course of a month with warmer and colder weather. Precipitation is spread evenly throughout the year with a light peak in summer due to showers and thunderstorms.

Climate data for Cologne (Cologne Bonn Airport, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1957–present)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 16.2
(61.2) 		21.0
(69.8) 		25.3
(77.5) 		30.8
(87.4) 		34.4
(93.9) 		36.8
(98.2) 		40.3
(104.5) 		38.8
(101.8) 		33.1
(91.6) 		27.6
(81.7) 		20.2
(68.4) 		16.7
(62.1) 		40.3
(104.5)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 13.1
(55.6) 		14.5
(58.1) 		19.7
(67.5) 		24.7
(76.5) 		28.2
(82.8) 		31.7
(89.1) 		33.2
(91.8) 		32.7
(90.9) 		27.4
(81.3) 		22.3
(72.1) 		16.8
(62.2) 		13.2
(55.8) 		35.4
(95.7)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 5.9
(42.6) 		7.2
(45.0) 		11.4
(52.5) 		16.1
(61.0) 		19.7
(67.5) 		22.7
(72.9) 		24.9
(76.8) 		24.5
(76.1) 		20.4
(68.7) 		15.2
(59.4) 		9.8
(49.6) 		6.5
(43.7) 		15.4
(59.7)
Daily mean °C (°F) 3.0
(37.4) 		3.6
(38.5) 		6.7
(44.1) 		10.4
(50.7) 		14.1
(57.4) 		17.1
(62.8) 		19.0
(66.2) 		18.5
(65.3) 		14.8
(58.6) 		10.8
(51.4) 		6.7
(44.1) 		3.8
(38.8) 		10.7
(51.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 0.0
(32.0) 		0.1
(32.2) 		2.0
(35.6) 		4.5
(40.1) 		8.1
(46.6) 		11.2
(52.2) 		13.3
(55.9) 		12.8
(55.0) 		9.7
(49.5) 		6.8
(44.2) 		3.5
(38.3) 		1.0
(33.8) 		6.1
(42.9)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −9.1
(15.6) 		−8.0
(17.6) 		−5.3
(22.5) 		−3.1
(26.4) 		0.9
(33.6) 		5.2
(41.4) 		7.7
(45.9) 		6.9
(44.4) 		3.7
(38.7) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		−3.8
(25.2) 		−7.1
(19.2) 		−11.8
(10.8)
Record low °C (°F) −23.4
(−10.1) 		−19.2
(−2.6) 		−13.4
(7.9) 		−8.8
(16.2) 		−2.9
(26.8) 		−0.5
(31.1) 		2.9
(37.2) 		1.9
(35.4) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		−6.0
(21.2) 		−10.4
(13.3) 		−18.0
(−0.4) 		−23.4
(−10.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 61.7
(2.43) 		53.8
(2.12) 		55.0
(2.17) 		48.2
(1.90) 		62.1
(2.44) 		86.3
(3.40) 		87.4
(3.44) 		83.3
(3.28) 		66.9
(2.63) 		64.7
(2.55) 		63.5
(2.50) 		69.2
(2.72) 		802.1
(31.58)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 17.2 16.3 16.0 13.0 14.4 14.4 15.4 14.5 14.2 15.6 17.4 19.1 187.6
Average snowy days (≥ 1.0 cm) 4.0 3.3 0.8 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.3 2.1 10.6
Average relative humidity (%) 81.8 78.4 72.9 67.2 68.9 70.8 70.9 73.0 77.8 81.5 83.7 83.9 75.9
Mean monthly sunshine hours 54.3 74.8 124.8 172.6 198.7 201.3 207.2 196.6 149.5 104.6 58.9 45.3 1,588.6
Source 1: World Meteorological Organization[40]
Source 2: Data derived from Deutscher Wetterdienst[41]

Cologne has become the first German city with a population of more than a million people to declare climate emergency.[42] The progressing climate change can be seen by looking at the climate data of the previous decade with lower mean temperatures.

Climate data for Cologne/Bonn Airport, 1981–2010 normals
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean maximum °C (°F) 12.5
(54.5) 		14.0
(57.2) 		19.0
(66.2) 		23.7
(74.7) 		27.7
(81.9) 		30.8
(87.4) 		32.3
(90.1) 		32.0
(89.6) 		26.4
(79.5) 		21.9
(71.4) 		16.4
(61.5) 		12.8
(55.0) 		34.1
(93.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 5.4
(41.7) 		6.7
(44.1) 		10.9
(51.6) 		15.1
(59.2) 		19.3
(66.7) 		21.9
(71.4) 		24.4
(75.9) 		24.0
(75.2) 		19.9
(67.8) 		15.1
(59.2) 		9.5
(49.1) 		5.9
(42.6) 		14.8
(58.6)
Daily mean °C (°F) 2.6
(36.7) 		2.9
(37.2) 		6.3
(43.3) 		9.7
(49.5) 		14.0
(57.2) 		16.6
(61.9) 		18.8
(65.8) 		18.1
(64.6) 		14.5
(58.1) 		10.6
(51.1) 		6.3
(43.3) 		3.3
(37.9) 		10.3
(50.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −0.6
(30.9) 		−0.7
(30.7) 		2.0
(35.6) 		4.2
(39.6) 		8.1
(46.6) 		11.0
(51.8) 		13.2
(55.8) 		12.6
(54.7) 		9.8
(49.6) 		6.7
(44.1) 		3.1
(37.6) 		0.4
(32.7) 		5.8
(42.4)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −10.3
(13.5) 		−8.9
(16.0) 		−5.2
(22.6) 		−3.2
(26.2) 		1.3
(34.3) 		4.7
(40.5) 		7.6
(45.7) 		6.8
(44.2) 		3.5
(38.3) 		−0.8
(30.6) 		−4.2
(24.4) 		−8.3
(17.1) 		−13.0
(8.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 62.1
(2.44) 		54.2
(2.13) 		64.6
(2.54) 		53.9
(2.12) 		72.2
(2.84) 		90.7
(3.57) 		85.8
(3.38) 		75.0
(2.95) 		74.9
(2.95) 		67.1
(2.64) 		67.0
(2.64) 		71.1
(2.80) 		838.6
(33.02)
Source: Data derived from Deutscher Wetterdienst[43]

Flood protection

Cologne is regularly affected by flooding from the Rhine and is considered the most flood-prone European city.[44] A city agency (Stadtentwässerungsbetriebe Köln,[45] "Cologne Urban Drainage Operations") manages an extensive flood control system which includes both permanent and mobile flood walls, protection from rising waters for buildings close to the river banks, monitoring and forecasting systems, pumping stations and programmes to create or protect floodplains, and river embankments.[44][46] The system was redesigned after a 1993 flood, which resulted in heavy damage.[44]

Wildlife

The dominant wildlife of Cologne is insects, small rodents, and several species of birds. Pigeons are the most often seen animals in Cologne, although the number of birds is augmented each year by a growing population of feral exotics, most visibly parrots such as the rose-ringed parakeet. The sheltered climate in southeast North Rhine-Westphalia allows these birds to survive through the winter, and in some cases, they are displacing native species. The plumage of Cologne's green parrots is highly visible even from a distance, and contrasts starkly with the otherwise muted colours of the cityscape.[47]

Hedgehogs, rabbits and squirrels are common in parks and the greener parts of town. In the outer suburbs foxes and wild boar can be seen, even during the day.

Demographics

Largest groups of foreign residents[48]
From country Population (2022)
Turkey 57,135
Italy 21,351
Ukraine 12,634
Poland 9,766
Iraq 8,631
Syria 8,074
Bulgaria 7,916
Greece 5,841
Iran 4,910
Serbia 4,837
Romania 4,786
Russia 4,651
Spain 3,954
Bosnia and Herzegovina 3,830
Croatia 3,539
Portugal 3,263
France 3,043
Kosovo 2,586
Netherlands 2,523
Morocco 2,418
Austria 2,394
China 2,328
United Kingdom 2,287
Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1430 40,000 —
1801 42,024 +5.1%
1840 75,858 +80.5%
1880 144,722 +90.8%
1900 372,229 +157.2%
1910 516,527 +38.8%
1920 657,175 +27.2%
1930 740,082 +12.6%
1940 733,500 −0.9%
1950 603,283 −17.8%
1960 803,616 +33.2%
1970 847,037 +5.4%
1980 976,694 +15.3%
1990 953,551 −2.4%
2001 967,940 +1.5%
2011 1,005,775 +3.9%
2022 1,017,355 +1.2%
Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.

In the Roman Empire, the city was large and rich with a population of 40,000 in 100–200 AD.[49] The city was home to around 20,000 people in 1000 AD, growing to 50,000 in 1200 AD. The Rhineland metropolis still had 50,000 residents in 1300 AD.[50][51]

Cologne is the fourth-largest city by population in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg and Munich. As of 31 December 2021, there were 1,079,301 people registered as living in Cologne in an area of 404.99 km2 (156.37 sq mi), which makes Cologne the third largest city by area.[52] The population density was 2,700/km2 (7,000/sq mi).[53] Cologne first reached the population of 1,000,000 in 1975 due to the incorporation of Wesseling, however this was reversed after public opposition. In 2009 Cologne's population again reached 1,000,000 and it became one of the four cities in Germany with a population exceeding 1 Million. The metropolitan area of the Cologne Bonn Region is home to 3,573,500 living on 4,415/km2 (11,430/sq mi).[54] It is part of the polycentric megacity region Rhine-Ruhr with a population of over 11,000,000 people.

There were 551,528 women and 527,773 men in Cologne. In 2021, there were 11,127 births in Cologne; 5,844 marriages and 1,808 divorces, and 10,536 deaths. In the city, the population was spread out, with 16.3% under the age of 18, and 17.8% were 65 years of age or older. 203 people in Cologne were over the age of 100.[53]

According to the Statistical Office of the City of Cologne, the number of people with a migrant background is at 40.5% (436,660). 2,254 people acquired German citizenship in 2021.[53] In 2021, there were 559,854 households, of which 18.4% had children under the age of 18; 51% of all households were made up of singles. 8% of all households were single-parent households. The average household size was 1.88.[53]

Residents with foreign citizenship

Cologne residents with a foreign citizenship as of 31 December 2021 is as follows:[53]

Citizenship Number %
Total 436,660 100%
Europe 283,960 65%
European Union 138,961 31.8%
Asian 78,235 17.9%
African 29,552 6.8%
American 13,786 3.2%
Australian and Oceanian 666 0.2%

Turkish community

Cologne is home to 90,000 people of Turkish origin and is the second largest German city with Turkish population after Berlin. Cologne has a Little Istanbul in Keupstraße that has many Turkish restaurants and markets. Famous Turkish-German people like rapper Eko Fresh and TV presenter Nazan Eckes were born in Cologne.

Language

Colognian or Kölsch (Colognian pronunciation: [kœɫːʃ]) (natively Kölsch Platt) is a small set of very closely related dialects, or variants, of the Ripuarian Central German group of languages. These dialects are spoken in the area covered by the Archdiocese and former Electorate of Cologne reaching from Neuss in the north to just south of Bonn, west to Düren and east to Olpe in the North-West of Germany. Kölsch is one of the very few city dialects in Germany, which also include the dialect spoken in Berlin, for example.

Religion

As of 2015, 35.5% of the population belonged to the Catholic Church, the largest religious body, and 15.5% to the Protestant Church.[55] Irenaeus of Lyons claimed that Christianity was brought to Cologne by Roman soldiers and traders at an unknown early date. It is known that in the early second century it was a bishop's seat. The first historical Bishop of Cologne was Saint Maternus.[56] Thomas Aquinas studied in Cologne in 1244 under Albertus Magnus. Cologne is the seat of the Archdiocese of Cologne.

According to the 2011 census, 2.1% of the population was Eastern Orthodox, 0.5% belonged of an Evangelical Free Church and 4.2% belonged to further religious communities officially recognized by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (such as Jehovah's Witnesses).[57][58]

There are several mosques, including the Cologne Central Mosque run by the Turkish-Islamic Union for Religious Affairs. In 2011, about 11.2% of the population was Muslim.[59]

Cologne also has one of the oldest and largest Jewish communities in Germany.[60] In 2011, 0.3% of Cologne's population was Jewish.[57]

On 11 October 2021, the Mayor of Cologne, Henriette Reker, announced that all of Cologne's 35 mosques would be allowed to broadcast the Adhan (prayer call) for up to five minutes on Fridays between noon and 3 p.m. She commented that the move "shows that diversity is appreciated and loved in Cologne".[61]

Government and politics

The city's administration is headed by the mayor and the three deputy mayors.

Political traditions and developments

The long tradition of a free imperial city, which long dominated an exclusively Catholic population and the age-old conflict between the church and the bourgeoisie (and within it between the patricians and craftsmen) have created its own political climate in Cologne. Various interest groups often form networks beyond party boundaries. The resulting web of relationships, with political, economic, and cultural links with each other in a system of mutual favours, obligations and dependencies, is called the 'Cologne coterie'. This has often led to an unusual proportional distribution in the city government and degenerated at times into corruption: in 1999, a "waste scandal" over kickbacks and illegal campaign contributions came to light, which led not only to the imprisonment of the entrepreneur Hellmut Trienekens, but also to the downfall of almost the entire leadership of the ruling Social Democrats.

Mayor

The incumbent Lord Mayor of Cologne is Torsten Burmester of the SPD. He received 53.51% of the vote at the runoff election.[62]

The most recent mayoral election was held on 14 September 2025, with a runoff held on 28 September, and the results were as follows:

Candidate Party First round Second round
Votes % Votes %
Torsten Burmester Social Democratic Party 97,791 21.3 192,198 53.5
Berivan Aymaz The Greens 128,932 28.1 166,996 46.5
Markus Greitemann CDU 89,263 19.5
Matthias Büschges Alternative for Germany 38,882 8.5
Heiner Kockerbeck The Left 28,054 6.12
Mark Bennecke Die PARTEI 16,197 3.5
Hans Mörtter Independent 15,830 3.5
Volker Görzel Free Democratic Party 13,552 3.0
Roberto Champione Cologne City Society 11,656 2.5
Lars Wolfram Volt Germany 11,585 2.5
Inga Feuser Good & Climate Friends 3,303 0.7
Heike Herden Party of Progress 2,513 0.6
Ali Güçlü Independent 915 0.2
Valid votes 458,473 99.3 359,194 99.4
Invalid votes 3,044 0.7 1,964 0.5
Total 461,517 100.0 361,158 100.0
Electorate/voter turnout 809,416 57.02 807,675 44.72
Source: City of Cologne ()

City council

The Cologne city council (Kölner Stadtrat) governs the city alongside the mayor. It serves a term of five years.[63] The most recent city council election was held on 14 September 2025, and the results were as follows:

Party Votes % +/- Seats +/-
Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) 114,881 25.0 3.5 22 4
Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 91,326 19.89 1.6 18 1
Social Democratic Party (SPD) 91,283 19.88 1.7 18 1
The Left (Die Linke) 49,703 10.8 4.4 10 4
Alternative for Germany (AfD) 41,828 9.1 4.7 8 4
Volt Germany (Volt) 23,081 5.0 ±0 5 1
Free Democratic Party (FDP) 17,779 3.9 1.4 3 2
Sahra Wagenknecht Alliance (BSW) 8.933 2.0 New 2 New
Die PARTEI (PARTEI) 8,136 1.8 0.7 2 ±0
Cologne City Society (KSG) 5,948 1.3 New 1 New
Good & Climate Friends (GUT&KLIMA) 5,481 1.2 New 1 New
Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany (dieBasis) 455 0.1 New 0 New
Liberal Democrats (LD) 122 0.0 New 0 New
German Communist Party (DKP) 54 0.0 New 0 New
Independent Yan 30 0.0 New 0 New
Independent Güçlü 26 0.0 New 0 New
Independent Przybylski 23 0.0 New 0 New
Valid votes 459,089 99.4
Invalid votes 2,575 0.6
Total 461,664 100.0 90 ±0
Electorate/voter turnout 809,416 57.0 5.6
Source: City of Cologne

State Landtag

In the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, Cologne is divided among seven constituencies. After the 2022 North Rhine-Westphalia state election, the composition and representation of each was as follows:

Constituency Area Party Member
13 Köln I Rodenkirchen and part of Innenstadt Grüne Eileen Woestmann
14 Köln II Lindenthal Grüne Frank Jablonski
15 Köln III Ehrenfeld and part of Nippes Grüne Arndt Klocke
16 Köln IV Chorweiler and most of Nippes SPD Lena Teschlade
17 Köln V Porz and the east of Kalk CDU Florian Braun
18 Köln VI Most of Innenstadt and the west of Kalk Grüne Berivan Aymaz
19 Köln VII Mülheim SPD Carolin Kirsch

Federal parliament

In the Bundestag, Cologne is divided among four constituencies. In the 21st Bundestag, elected 23 February 2025, the composition and representation of each was as follows:

Constituency Area Party Member
92 Cologne I Porz, Kalk, and part of Innenstadt SPD Sanae Abdi
93 Cologne II Rodenkirchen, Lindenthal, and part of Innenstadt Grüne Sven Lehmann
94 Cologne III Ehrenfeld, Nippes, and Chorweiler Grüne Katharina Dröge
100 Leverkusen – Cologne IV Mülheim (and the city of Leverkusen) SPD Karl Lauterbach

Cityscape

The inner city of Cologne was largely destroyed during World War II. The reconstruction of the city followed the style of the 1950s, while respecting the old layout and naming of the streets. Thus, the city centre today is characterized by modern architecture, with a few interspersed pre-war buildings which were reconstructed due to their historical importance. Some buildings of the "Wiederaufbauzeit" (era of reconstruction), for example, the opera house by Wilhelm Riphahn, are nowadays regarded as classics of modern architecture. Nevertheless, the uncompromising style of the Cologne Opera house and other modern buildings has remained controversial.

The districts outside the city centre consist mostly of 19th and 20th century buildings.[5] Around 25% of Cologne was built before 1945.[5]

Green areas account for over a quarter of Cologne, which is approximately 75 m2 (807.29 sq ft) of public green space for every inhabitant.[64]

Landmarks

Churches

  • Cologne Cathedral (German: Kölner Dom) is the city's most famous monument and the Cologne residents' most loved landmark. It is a Gothic church, started in 1248, and completed in 1880. In 1996, it was designated a World Heritage Site; it houses the Shrine of the Three Kings, which supposedly contains the relics of the Three Magi (see also[65]). Residents of Cologne sometimes refer to the cathedral as "the eternal construction site" (die ewige Baustelle).
  • Twelve Romanesque churches: These buildings are outstanding examples of early medieval church architecture. The origins of some of these churches go back as far as Roman times. St. Gereon, for example, was originally a huge mausoleum in a Roman graveyard, and St. Maria im Kapitol was built on the substructure of a Roman temple. Great St. Martin Church stands on the site of Roman warehouses and previously a sports field with a swimming pool, the walls of which can be seen in the basement of the church. With the exception of St. Maria Lyskirchen all of these churches were very badly damaged during World War II. Reconstructions of the last ones were only finished in the 1990s.

Medieval houses

The Cologne City Hall (Kölner Rathaus), founded in the 12th century, is the oldest city hall in Germany still in use.[66] The Renaissance-style loggia and tower were added in the 15th century. Other famous buildings include the Gürzenich, Haus Saaleck and the Overstolzenhaus.

Medieval city gates

Of the twelve medieval city gates that once existed, only the Eigelsteintorburg at Ebertplatz, the Hahnentor at Rudolfplatz and the Severinstorburg at Chlodwigplatz still stand today.

Streets

  • The Cologne Ring boulevards (such as Hohenzollernring, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring, Hansaring) with their medieval city gates (such as Hahnentorburg on Rudolfplatz) are also known for their night life.
  • Hohe Straße (literally: High Street) is one of the main shopping areas and extends past the cathedral in an approximately southerly direction. The street contains many gift shops, clothing stores, fast food restaurants and electronic goods dealers.
  • Schildergasse – connects Neumarkt square at its western end to the Hohe Strasse shopping street at its eastern end and has been named the busiest shopping street in Europe with 13,000 people passing through every hour, according to a 2008 study by GfK.
  • Ehrenstraße – the shopping area around Apostelnstrasse, Ehrenstrasse, and Rudolfplatz is a little more on the quirky and stylish side.

Bridges

Several bridges cross the Rhine in Cologne. They are (from south to north): the Rodenkirchen Bridge, South Bridge (railway), Severin Bridge, Deutz Bridge, Hohenzollern Bridge (railway), Zoo Bridge (Zoobrücke) and Mülheim Bridge. In particular the iron tied arch Hohenzollern Bridge (Hohenzollernbrücke) is a dominant landmark along the river embankment. A Rhine crossing of a special kind is provided by the Cologne Cable Car (German: Kölner Seilbahn), a cableway that runs across the river between the Cologne Zoological Garden in Riehl and the Rheinpark in Deutz.

High-rise structures

Cologne's tallest structure is the Colonius telecommunication tower at 266 m or 873 ft. The observation deck has been closed since 1992. A selection of the tallest buildings in Cologne is listed below. Other tall structures include the Hansahochhaus (designed by architect Jacob Koerfer and completed in 1925 – it was at one time Europe's tallest office building), the Kranhaus buildings at Rheinauhafen, and the Messeturm Köln ("trade fair tower").

Skyscraper Image Height in metres Floors Year Address Notes
KölnTurm File:Koeln-Turm 001.jpg 148.5 43 2001 MediaPark 8, Neustadt-Nord (literally: Cologne Tower), Cologne's second tallest building at 165.48 metres (542.91 ft) in height. The 30th floor of the building has a restaurant and a terrace with 360° views of the city.
Colonia-Hochhaus File:Colonia-Haus.jpg 147 45 1973 An der Schanz 2, Riehl tallest building in Germany from 1973 to 1976. Today, it is still the country's second tallest residential building.
Rheintower File:Hochhaus Deutsche Welle Köln-3588.jpg 138 34 1980 Raderberggürtel, Marienburg former headquarters of Deutsche Welle, since 2007 under renovation with the new name Rheintower Köln-Marienburg.
Uni-Center[67] File:Uni-Center-Koeln.jpg 133 45 1973 Luxemburger Straße, Sülz
TÜV Rheinland File:TÜV Rheinland, Köln-Poll.jpg 112 22 1974 Am Grauen Stein, Poll
Ringturm File:Grünanlage Theodor-Heuss-Ring Köln mit Ringturm-8184.jpg 109 26 1973 Ebertplatz, Neustadt-Nord
Justizzentrum Köln File:Ballonfahrt über Köln - Justizzentrum-RS-4013.jpg 105 25 1981 Luxemburger Straße, Sülz
KölnTriangle File:KölnTriangle (0684).jpg 103 29 2006 Ottoplatz 1, Deutz opposite to the cathedral with a 103 m (338 ft) high viewing platform and a view of the cathedral over the Rhine.
Herkules-Hochhaus File:Herkulesbuilding.jpg 102 31 1969 Graeffstraße 1, Ehrenfeld

Culture

Cologne has numerous museums. The famous Roman-Germanic Museum features art and architecture from the city's distant past; the Museum Ludwig houses one of the most important collections of modern art in Europe, including a Picasso collection matched only by the museums in Barcelona and Paris. The Museum Schnütgen of religious art is partly housed in St. Cecilia, one of Cologne's Twelve Romanesque churches. Many art galleries in Cologne enjoy a worldwide reputation like e.g. Galerie Karsten Greve, one of the leading galleries for postwar and contemporary art.

Cologne has more than 60 music venues and the third-highest density of music venues of Germany's four largest cities, after Munich and Hamburg and ahead of Berlin.[68][69]

Several orchestras are active in the city, among them the Gürzenich Orchestra, which is also the orchestra of the Cologne Opera and the WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne (German State Radio Orchestra), both based at the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra Building (Kölner Philharmonie).[70] Other orchestras are the Musica Antiqua Köln, the WDR Rundfunkorchester Köln and WDR Big Band, and several choirs, including the WDR Rundfunkchor Köln. Cologne was also an important hotbed for electronic music in the 1950s (Studio für elektronische Musik, Karlheinz Stockhausen) and again from the 1990s onward. The public radio and TV station WDR was involved in promoting musical movements such as Krautrock in the 1970s; the influential Can was formed there in 1968. There are several centres of nightlife, among them the Kwartier Latäng (the student quarter around the Zülpicher Straße) and the nightclub-studded areas around Hohenzollernring, Friesenplatz and Rudolfplatz.

The large annual literary festival lit. COLOGNE with its Silberschweinpreis features regional and international authors. The main literary figure connected with Cologne is the writer Heinrich Böll, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature. Since 2012, there is also an annual international festival of philosophy called phil.cologne.

The city also has the most pubs per capita in Germany.[71] Cologne is well known for its beer, called Kölsch. Kölsch is also the name of the local dialect. This has led to the common joke of Kölsch being the only language one can drink.

Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (German: Kölnisch Wasser; lit: "Water of Cologne"), a perfume created by Italian expatriate Johann Maria Farina at the beginning of the 18th century. During the 18th century, this perfume became increasingly popular, was exported all over Europe by the Farina family and Farina became a household name for Eau de Cologne. In 1803 Wilhelm Mülhens entered into a contract with an unrelated person from Italy named Carlo Francesco Farina who granted him the right to use his family name and Mühlens opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and after various court battles, his grandson Ferdinand Mülhens was forced to abandon the name Farina for the company and their product. He decided to use the house number given to the factory at Glockengasse during the French occupation in the early 19th century, 4711. Today, original Eau de Cologne is still produced in Cologne by both the Farina family, in the eighth generation, and by Mäurer & Wirtz who bought the 4711 brand in 2006.

Carnival

The Cologne carnival is one of the largest street festivals in Europe. In Cologne, the carnival season officially starts on 11 November at 11 minutes past 11 a.m. with the proclamation of the new Carnival Season, and continues until Ash Wednesday. However, the so-called "Tolle Tage" (crazy days) do not start until Weiberfastnacht (Women's Carnival) or, in dialect, Wieverfastelovend, the Thursday before Ash Wednesday, which is the beginning of the street carnival. Zülpicher Strasse and its surroundings, Neumarkt square, Heumarkt and all bars and pubs in the city are crowded with people in costumes dancing and drinking in the streets. Hundreds of thousands of visitors flock to Cologne during this time. Generally, around a million people celebrate in the streets on the Thursday before Ash Wednesday.[72]

Cuisine

Cologne is shaped by a long culinary tradition that has been enriched with imported and sometimes exotic elements. Because of its prominent role in international trade, the local cuisine incorporated herring, mussels, and many spices very early on. In the Middle Ages, when salmon (usually called Salm in Cologne) and allis shad (Maifisch) were still abundant in the Rhine, these fish were considered poor people's food, while herring was very popular in bourgeois households. The Rhenish herring salad (Heringsstipp) with apples, onions, and cream still bears witness to this tradition. Mussels "Rhenish style" are now a staple of local gastronomy.

As is typical in the Rhineland, sweet and savory flavors are often combined. The fertile soil and favorable climate also make vegetables a major part of Cologne's cuisine. A sweet-and-sour specialty is Rheinischer Sauerbraten (Rhenish pot roast), which was originally made with horse meat, as well as the simpler Himmel un Ääd (Heaven and Earth)—a mix of mashed potatoes and apple sauce—served with fried blood sausage (Flönz). Savoy cabbage and asparagus are also commonly offered as seasonal vegetables.[73]

A special role in Cologne is played by the Brauhäuser (brewpubs). These establishments were originally created for serving beer from Cologne's breweries but have since become key venues for traditional, hearty cuisine. In addition to the dishes mentioned, one can find filling meals such as Krüstchen (breaded pork cutlet with egg), Eisbein ("Hämchen", boiled pork knuckle), Hachse (roasted pork knuckle), and potato pancakes (Reibekuchen or Rievkooche). Because they require considerable preparation, the latter are often available only on certain days. Popular accompaniments to Kölsch—the local beer, served fresh from the barrel in these brewpubs—include steak tartare (Tatar), blood sausage (Flönz), or Halver Hahn (a rye roll with cheese and mustard).

Local pastry specialties include Mutze, Muzemandeln, and doughnuts (Krapfen), along with a wide variety of open and covered cakes, most commonly topped with apples or plums. Sweetening is sometimes done with sugar beet syrup (Rübenkraut), which is also used as a bread spread.

Rivalry with Düsseldorf

Cologne and Düsseldorf have a "fierce regional rivalry",[74] which includes carnival parades, ice hockey, football, and beer.[74] People in Cologne prefer Kölsch while people in Düsseldorf prefer Altbier ("Alt").[74] Waiters and patrons will "scorn" and make a "mockery" of people who order Alt beer in Cologne or Kölsch in Düsseldorf.[74] The rivalry has been described as a "love–hate relationship".[74] The Köln Guild of Brewers was established in 1396. The Kölsch beer style first appeared in the 1800s and in 1986 the breweries established an appellation under which only breweries in the city are allowed to use the term Kölsch.[75]

Museums

Music fairs and festivals

The city was home to the internationally famous Ringfest, and now to the C/o pop festival.[76]

In addition, Cologne enjoys a thriving Christmas Market (Weihnachtsmarkt) presence with several locations in the city.

Economy

As the largest city in the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, Cologne benefits from a large market structure.[77] In competition with Düsseldorf, the economy of Cologne is primarily based on insurance and media industries,[78] while the city is also an important cultural and research centre and home to a number of corporate headquarters.

Among the largest media companies based in Cologne are Westdeutscher Rundfunk, RTL Television (with subsidiaries), n-tv, Deutschlandradio, Brainpool TV and publishing houses like J. P. Bachem, Taschen, Tandem Verlag, and M. DuMont Schauberg. Several clusters of media, arts and communications agencies, TV production studios, and state agencies work partly with private and government-funded cultural institutions. Among the insurance companies based in Cologne are Central, DEVK, DKV, Generali Deutschland, Gen Re, Gothaer, HDI Gerling and national headquarters of Axa Insurance, Mitsui Sumitomo Insurance Group and Zurich Financial Services.

The German flag carrier Lufthansa and its subsidiary Lufthansa CityLine have their main corporate headquarters in Cologne.[79] The largest employer in Cologne is Ford Europe, which has its European headquarters and a factory in Niehl (Ford-Werke GmbH).[80] Toyota Motorsport GmbH (TMG), Toyota's official motorsports team, responsible for Toyota rally cars, and then Formula One cars, has its headquarters and workshops in Cologne. Other large companies based in Cologne include the REWE Group, TÜV Rheinland, Deutz AG and a number of Kölsch breweries. The largest three Kölsch breweries of Cologne are Reissdorf, Gaffel, and Früh.

Brewery Established Annual output in hectoliters
Heinrich Reissdorf 1894 650,000
Gaffel Becker & Co 1908 500,000
Cölner Hofbräu Früh 1904 440,000

Historically, Cologne has always been an important trade city, with land, air, and sea connections.[7] The city has five Rhine ports,[7] the second largest inland port in Germany and one of the largest in Europe. Cologne Bonn Airport is the second largest freight terminal in Germany.[7] Today, the Cologne trade fair (Koelnmesse) ranks as a major European trade fair location with over 50 trade fairs[7] and other large cultural and sports events. In 2008 Cologne had 4.31 million overnight stays booked and 2.38 million arrivals.[38] Cologne's largest daily newspaper is the Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger.

Cologne shows a significant increase in startup companies, especially when considering digital business.[81]

Cologne had 5.8 million overnight stays booked and 3.35 million arrivals in 2016.[82]

Transport

Roads

Road building had been a major issue in the 1920s under the leadership of mayor Konrad Adenauer. The first German limited-access road was constructed after 1929 between Cologne and Bonn. Today, this is the Bundesautobahn 555. In 1965, Cologne became the first German city to be fully encircled by a motorway ring road. Roughly at the same time, a city centre bypass (Stadtautobahn) was planned, but only partially put into effect, due to opposition by environmental groups. The completed section became Bundesstraße ("Federal Road") B 55a, which begins at the Zoobrücke ("Zoo Bridge") and meets with A 4 and A 3 at the interchange Cologne East. Nevertheless, it is referred to as Stadtautobahn by most locals. In contrast to this, the Nord-Süd-Fahrt ("North-South-Drive") was actually completed, a new four/six-lane city centre through-route, which had already been anticipated by planners such as Fritz Schumacher in the 1920s. The last section south of Ebertplatz was completed in 1972.

In 2005, the first stretch of an eight-lane motorway in North Rhine-Westphalia was opened to traffic on Bundesautobahn 3, part of the eastern section of the Cologne Beltway between the interchanges Cologne East and Heumar.

Cycling

Compared to other German cities, Cologne has a not so bicycle-friendly traffic layout. It has repeatedly ranked among the worst in an independent evaluation[83] conducted by the Allgemeiner Deutscher Fahrrad-Club. In 2014, it ranked 36th out of 39 German cities with a population greater than 200,000.

Railway

Cologne has a railway service with Deutsche Bahn InterCity and ICE-trains stopping at Köln Hauptbahnhof (Cologne Main Station), Köln Messe/Deutz and Cologne/Bonn Airport. ICE and TGV Thalys high-speed trains link Cologne with Amsterdam, Brussels (in 1h47, 9 departures/day) and Paris (in 3h14, 6 departures/day). There are frequent ICE trains to other German cities, including Frankfurt am Main and Berlin. ICE trains to London via the Channel Tunnel were planned for 2013.[84]

The Cologne Stadtbahn operated by Kölner Verkehrsbetriebe (KVB)[85] is an extensive light rail system that is partially underground and serves Cologne and a number of neighbouring cities. It evolved from the tram system. Nearby Bonn is linked by both the Stadtbahn and main line railway trains, with occasional recreational boats on the Rhine. Düsseldorf is also linked by S-Bahn trains, which are operated by Deutsche Bahn.

The Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn has 5 lines which cross Cologne. The S13/S19 runs 24/7 between Cologne Hbf and Cologne/Bonn airport.

Buses

There are frequent buses covering most of the city and surrounding suburbs. Long distance buses are offered by FlixBus.

Water

Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln (Ports and Goods traffic Cologne, HGK) is one of the largest operators of inland ports in Germany.[86] Ports include Köln-Deutz, Köln-Godorf and Köln-Niehl I and II.

Air

Cologne's international airport is Cologne/Bonn Airport (CGN). It is also called Konrad Adenauer Airport after Germany's first post-war Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who was born in the city and was mayor of Cologne from 1917 until 1933. The airport is shared with the neighbouring city of Bonn. Cologne is headquarters to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA).

Education

Cologne is home to numerous universities and colleges,[87][88] and host to some 72,000 students.[7] Its oldest university, the University of Cologne (founded in 1388)[3] is the largest university in Germany, as the Cologne University of Applied Sciences is the largest university of Applied Sciences in the country. The Cologne University of Music and Dance is the largest conservatory in Europe.[89] Foreigners can have German lessons in the VHS (Adult Education Centre).[90]

Public and state universities: University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln);
German Sport University Cologne (Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln).
Public and state colleges: Cologne University of Applied Sciences ("Technology, Arts, Sciences TH KöLN" Technische Hochschule Köln);
Köln International School of Design;
Cologne University of Music and Dance (Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln);
Academy of Media Arts Cologne (Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln);
Private colleges: Catholic University of Applied Sciences (Katholische Hochschule Nordrhein-Westfalen);
Cologne Business School;
international filmschool cologne (internationale filmschule köln);
Rhenish University of Applied Sciences (Rheinische Fachhochschule Köln)
University of Applied Sciences Fresenius (Hochschule Fresenius) 		Research institutes: German Aerospace Centre (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt);
European Astronaut Centre (EAC) of the European Space Agency;
European College of Sport Science (ECSS);
Max Planck Institute for the Biology of Ageing (Max-Planck-Institut für die Biologie des Alterns);
Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies (Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung);
Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research (Max-Planck-Institut für neurologische Forschung);
Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research (Max-Planck-Institut für Züchtungsforschung).
CologneAMS – Centre for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, Institute for Nuclear Physics, University of Cologne
Former colleges include:
The Cologne Art and Crafts Schools (Kölner Werkschulen);
The Cologne Institute for Religious Art (Kölner Institut für religiöse Kunst)

Lauder Morijah School (German: Lauder-Morijah-Schule), a Jewish school in Cologne, previously closed. After Russian immigration increased the Jewish population, the school reopened in 2002.[91]

Media

Cologne, alongside Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich, is one of Germany's largest and most important centres for mass media, employing around 30,000 to 40,000 people in this sector. The city's media landscape is highly diverse: in addition to major television and radio broadcasters and large publishing houses, a well-developed supporting industry has emerged in Cologne, encompassing a wide range of businesses—from agencies and production companies to technical service providers and equipment suppliers. The city is "Germany's capital of TV crime stories".[92] A third of all German TV productions are made in the Cologne region.[92] Furthermore, the city hosts the Cologne Comedy Festival, which is considered to be the largest comedy festival in mainland Europe.[93]

Radio, television, and music industry

The public broadcaster Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR), Germany's largest ARD broadcasting institution and the country's biggest broadcaster overall, employs around 3,500 people at its headquarters in Cologne. WDR operates television channels such as WDR Fernsehen and one, as well as several radio stations, including 1LIVE and COSMO. The nationwide public broadcaster Deutschlandradio also transmits from its Cologne headquarters, home to Deutschlandfunk (Dlf) and Deutschlandfunk Nova. In addition, the Beitragsservice (formerly GEZ, the public broadcasting fee collection service) is based in Cologne.

RTL Deutschland, Europe's largest private television company—with channels such as RTL Television, VOX, Super RTL, Nitro, and several specialized stations—has its headquarters in the Rheinhallen complex. The country's first all-news channel, n-tv, also belongs to RTL Deutschland and operates its main broadcast centre in Cologne.

Other radio stations based in the city include Domradio and Radio Köln, which is part of Radio NRW. The private broadcasters bigFM and RPR1 maintain studios in the Capitol building. Cologne also hosts Kölncampus, its own campus radio station.

The most successful German music television channel, VIVA, was founded in Cologne in 1993 as VIVA Media. From the cathedral city, it broadcast its main program until 2005, along with VIVA Zwei. After being acquired by MTV's parent company Viacom, VIVA was relocated to Berlin and later discontinued. From October 2005 to December 2014, center.tv broadcast daily programs exclusively about life in and around Cologne. From January 2015 to March 2016, the channel continued under the new name Köln.tv. The international broadcaster Deutsche Welle was also based in Cologne until its move to Bonn in 2003. The British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS) operated from the Marienburg district between January 1954 and October 1990.

The record label EMI Music Germany, which moved its headquarters from Cologne-Braunsfeld to the MediaPark in August 2000 and later to Cologne-Bickendorf, was acquired by Universal Music in 2011. As a result, only the local Kölsch-language label Rhingtön remained in Cologne. Several smaller record labels and music publishers are also located in the city.

Cologne is home to the publishing house M. DuMont Schauberg, one of Germany's most influential newspaper publishers. The Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger and the Kölnische Rundschau, both printed there, cover Cologne, its metropolitan area, and extend into the Eifel and Bergisches Land regions. The tabloid Express, produced by the same publisher, is also distributed in the Düsseldorf area.

Business magazines such as Capital and Impulse are also published in Cologne. Local monthly city magazines like StadtRevue, Kölner, and the Kölner Wochenspiegel—published by Kölner Anzeigenblatt GmbH & Co. KG—play an important role in the local press landscape.

Internationally active publishing houses based in Cologne include Taschen and Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, both known for their focus on art, architecture, and erotica. The city also hosts major literary publishers such as Kiepenheuer & Witsch and DuMont Buchverlag. Founded in 1918, the subreport Verlag Schawe has been based in Cologne since its inception. The Lübbe publishing group, one of Germany's largest book publishers, relocated from Bergisch Gladbach to Cologne-Mülheim in 2010.

Institutions and locations

A prominent media site in Cologne is the MediaPark, located near Hansaring in the city centre. Built between 1992 and 2003 on the grounds of the former Gereon railway yard, it covers 20 hectares and provides 174,000 m² of office space. Among its modern buildings, including the 148-meter-high KölnTurm, around 250 companies with approximately 5,000 employees are based—about 60% of them working in the media and communications sector.

Key media institutions in Cologne include the Academy of Media Arts Cologne (Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln), the International Film School Cologne (IFS Köln), and the GAG Academy for aspiring comedians. The city is also home to the Film Office of North Rhine-Westphalia (Filmbüro NRW). Many small film production companies, especially in the Belgian Quarter, provide services and equipment to larger production firms.

Large-scale studios and production facilities, which require more space, are located on the city's outskirts—such as the WDR studios in Bocklemünd or the media centre in Mülheim. Around the E-Werk, a major event hall on a former industrial site, many artists, agencies, and several television studios have established themselves; productions for channels like Sat.1 and ProSieben take place there.

In the northwest of the city, the Coloneum—one of Europe's largest studio complexes with a usable area of 157,000 m²—is located on the grounds of the former Butzweilerhof airfield. In the southwest, between Cologne and Hürth, large studio complexes for Nobeo and MMC were built, where numerous shows for Sat.1 and RTL are produced, including those by the production company action concept.

Sports

Cologne hosts the football club 1. FC Köln,[94] who play currently in the Bundesliga after being promoted from the second division in 2025. They play their home matches in RheinEnergieStadion which also hosted five matches of the 2006 FIFA World Cup.[95] The International Olympic Committee and the International Association of Sports and Leisure Facilities gave RheinEnergieStadion a bronze medal for "being one of the best sporting venues in the world".[95] The city also hosts the two football clubs FC Viktoria Köln and SC Fortuna Köln, who play in the 3. Liga (third division) and the Regionalliga West (fourth division) respectively. Cologne's oldest football club 1. FSV Köln 1899 is playing with its amateur team in the Verbandsliga (sixth division).

Cologne also is home of the ice hockey team Kölner Haie, which is playing in the highest ice hockey league in Germany, the Deutsche Eishockey Liga.[94] They are based at Lanxess Arena.[94]

Several horse races per year are held at Cologne-Weidenpesch Racecourse since 1897, the annual Cologne Marathon was started in 1997 and the classic cycling race Rund um Köln is organised in Cologne since 1908. The city also has a long tradition in rowing, being home of some of Germany's oldest regatta courses and boat clubs, such as the Kölner Rudergesellschaft 1891 or the Kölner Ruderverein von 1877 in the Rodenkirchen district.

Japanese automotive manufacturer Toyota has their major motorsport facility known by the name Toyota Motorsport GmbH, which is located in the Marsdorf district, and is responsible for Toyota's major motorsport development and operations, which in the past included the FIA Formula One World Championship, the FIA World Rally Championship and the Le Mans Series. They are working on Toyota's team Toyota Gazoo Racing which competes in the FIA World Endurance Championship.

Cologne is considered "the secret golf capital of Germany".[94] The first golf club in North Rhine-Westphalia was founded in Cologne in 1906.[94] The city offers the most options and top events in Germany.[94]

The city has hosted several sports events which includes the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup, 2006 FIFA World Cup, 2007 World Men's Handball Championship, 2010 and 2017 Ice Hockey World Championships, 2024 FIFA European Championship and 2010 Gay Games.[10]

Since 2014, the city has hosted ESL One Cologne, one of the biggest Counter-Strike tournaments held annually in July/August at Lanxess Arena.

Furthermore, Cologne is home of the Sport-Club Colonia 1906, Germany's oldest boxing club, and the Kölner Athleten-Club 1882, the world's oldest active weightlifting club.

Notable people

Twin towns – sister cities

Cologne is twinned with:[96]

Former twin towns

See also

From the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia

Cologne — (Ger. KÖLN or CÖLN), German city and archbishopric.

The City

Cologne, in size the third city of Prussia, and the capital of the district (Regierungsbezirk) of Cologne, is situated in the lowlands of the lower Rhine on both sides of the river. Its area is 45 square miles; its population (1 December, 1905), 428,722, of whom 339,790 are Catholics, 76,718 Protestants, 11,035 of other sects.

The history of Cologne goes back to the first century before Christ. After Marcus Agrippa transplanted the Ubii from the right to the left bank of the Rhine (38 B.C.), Ara Ubiorum, the centre of the civil and religious life of this tribe, occupied the site of the modern Cologne. In A.D. 50 Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus, founded here a colony of veterans called Colonia Agrippina; the inhabitants of the two settlements mingled freely with each other, while the Germans gradually assumed Roman customs. After the revolt of the Batavians, Cologne was made the capital of a Roman province and was repeatedly the residence of the imperial court. At an early date Christianity came to Cologne with the Roman soldiers and traders; according to Irenaeus of Lyons, it was a bishop's see as early as the second century. However, Saint Maternus, a contemporary of Constantine, is the first historically certain Bishop of Cologne. As a result of its favourable situation, the city survived the stormy period of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. When the Ripuarian Franks took possession of the country in the fifth century, it became the residence of their king. On account of the services of the Bishops of Cologne to the Merovingian kings, the city was to have been the metropolitan see of Saint Boniface, but Mainz was chosen, for unknown reasons, and Cologne did not become an archbishopric until the time of Charlemagne. The city suffered heavily from invasions of the Northmen, especially in the autumn of 881, but recovered quickly from these calamities, especially during the reign of the Saxon emperors and of such vigorous archbishops as Bruno, Heribert, Piligrun, and others.

In the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Cologne attained great prosperity. The basis of this prosperity was the commercial activity of the city, which placed it in relation not only with Northern Europe, but also with Hungary, Venice, and Genoa. The local crafts also flourished; the spinners, weavers, and dyers, the woollen-drapers, goldsmiths, sword-cutlers, and armour-makers of Cologne were especially celebrated. The ecclesiastical importance of the city was equally great; no city north of the Alps was so rich in great churches, sanctuaries, relics, and religious communities. It was known as the "German Rome," and was annually visited by pilgrims, especially after Rainald of Dassel, Archbishop of Cologne (1159-67), brought thither the remains of the Three Magi from Milan. Learning was zealously cultivated in the cathedral school, in the collegiate chapters, and the cloisters; famous philosophers taught here, among them Rupert of Deutz, Caesarius of Heisterbach, Duns Scotus, and Blessed Albertus Magnus. The arts also flourished, on account of the numerous churches and civil buildings. With the growth of the municipal prosperity, the pride of the citizens and their desire for independence also increased, and caused them to feel more dissatisfied with the sovereignty of the archbishop. This resulted in bitter feuds between the bishops and the city, which lasted for two centuries with varying fortunes. The first uprising occurred under Anno II, at Easter of the year 1074; the citizens rose against the archbishop, but were defeated within three days, and severely punished. They received important concessions from Archbishop Henry I of Molenark (1225-38) and his successor, the powerful Conrad of Hostaden (1238-1261), who laid the corner-stone of the cathedral. The bloody battle of Worringen in 1288, in which the citizens of Cologne allied with Brabant took prisoner Archbishop Siegfried of Westerburg (1274-97), resulted in an almost complete freedom for the city; to regain his liberty, the archbishop recognized the political independence of Cologne, but reserved certain rights, notably the administration of justice.

A long period of peace with the outside world followed. Cologne joined the Hanseatic League in the thirteenth century, and became an imperial free city in the fourteenth. On the other hand internal dissensions frequently disturbed the city. After the close of the twelfth century the government of the city was in the hands of patrician families, who filled all the offices in the city government with members of their own order. In time the craft organizations (guilds) increased in strength and demanded a share in the government. As early as 1370, in the uprising of the weavers, they gained the upper hand for a short time, but it was not until 1396 that the rule of the patricians was finally abolished. On 14 September of that year the new democratic constitution was adopted, in accordance with which only representatives of the guilds sat in the city council. The last act of the patricians was the foundation of the university (1388), which rapidly began to prosper. By their firmness and wisdom the new rulers maintained themselves against the patricians, against Archbishop Dietrich of Mörs (1419), and against Charles the Bold, who, in alliance with Archbishop Ruprecht, sought to bring the city again under archiepiscopal rule. It also suppressed domestic uprisings (for instance in 1481 and 1512). Throughout this period the city retained its place as the first city of the German Empire, in which learning, the fine arts, and the art of printing were vigorously cultivated.

In the religious upheavals of the sixteenth century Cologne remained true to Catholic doctrine, thanks chiefly to the activity of the university, where such men as Cochlaeus, Ortwin Gratianus, Jacob of Hoogstraeten, and others taught. Under their influence, the city council held fast to Catholic tradition and energetically opposed the new doctrines, which found many adherents among the people and the clergy. Cologne remained a stronghold of the old beliefs, and gave active support to the Counter-Reformation, which found earnest champions in Johannes Gropper, the Jesuits, Saint Peter Canisius, and others. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were a time of decadence for the city; its importance diminished especially after the Thirty Years War (1618-48) in which it was loyal to the emperor and the empire, and was never captured. The university eventually lost its prestige, because through over-caution it opposed the most justifiable reforms; trade was diverted to other channels; only its ecclesiastical glory remained to the city, which was governed by a narrow-minded class of tradesmen and often suffered from the dissensions between council and citizens (in 1679-86 and the bloody troubles caused by Nicholas Guelich). The outbreak of the French Revolution found it a community with but slight power of resistance. The French entered Cologne, 26 October, 1794, and the citizens were soon severely oppressed by requisitions, forced loans, and contributions. On 27 September, 1797, the old city constitution was finally annulled, the French administrative organization established, and the city made a part of the French department of the Roer of which Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was the capital. The university was discontinued in 1798; it had dragged out a miserable existence owing to the establishment of the University of Bonn and the confused policy of the last archbishop. After the downfall of French domination in Germany, Cologne was apportioned by the Congress of Vienna to the Kingdom of Prussia. It was made neither the seat of the government of the Rhenish Province, nor the seat of the university, but it was restored to its rank of metropolitan see, and in the nineteenth century, under Prussian rule became the third largest city of Prussia and attained unusual prosperity, economic, intellectual, and ecclesiastical.

Only brief ecclesiastical statistics can be given here. In 1907, besides the archbishop and assistant bishop, there were in Cologne 214 priests, of whom 24 were members of the cathedral chapter and 38 were parish priests, and 128 others engaged in pastoral occupations. There are 12 Dominicans and 9 Franciscans. The two deaneries of the city embrace 39 parish and 3 military churches; in addition to the 39 parish churches, there are 22 lesser churches and 26 chapels. Religious societies are numerous and powerful among more than 400 religious societies and brotherhoods we may mention: Societies of Saint Vincent, Saint Elizabeth, and Saint Charles Borromeo, Marian congregations for young men and for young women, rosary confraternities, Associations the Holy Childhood, Holy Family, of Christian Mothers, etc. Among the trades organization the most powerful are the four Catholic Gesellenvereine, with 4 hospices and 18 Catholic workingmens' unions. The male religious orders and congregations are represented by Dominicans, Franciscans, Alexian Brothers, Brothers of Charity, and Brothers of Saint Francis; the female orders and congregations by Sisters of Saint Benedict, the Borromean Sisterhood, the Cellites, Sisters of Saint Dominic, Sisters of Saint Francis, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, the Ursuline Sisters, and Sisters of Saint Vincent; a total of 43 religious houses with about 1140 inmates. The Alexian Brothers, the Brothers of Charity, and the Brothers of Saint Francis, as well as almost all the female religious orders, conduct numerous charitable and educational institutions.

Among the churches of Cologne, the foremost is the cathedral, the greatest monument of Gothic architecture in Germany. Its cornerstone was laid by Archbishop Conrad of Hostaden, 14 August, 1248; the sanctuary was dedicated in 1322; the nave made ready for religious services in 1388; the southern tower was built to a height of about 180 feet in 1447; then the work of building was interrupted for almost four hundred years. During the French Revolution the cathedral was degraded to a hay barn. In the nineteenth century the work of building was resumed, thanks above all to the efforts of Sulpice Boisseree, who excited the enthusiasm of the Crown Prince, afterwards King Frederick William IV, for the completion of the work. The restoration was begun in 1823; in 1842 the Cathedral Building Society was founded, and generous contributions from all parts of Germany resulted. The interior was finished, 15 October, 1863, and opened for Divine service; and 15 October, 1880, the completion of the entire cathedral was appropriately celebrated in the presence of the German emperor. The whole edifice covers an area of about 7370 square yards; it has a nave 445 feet long, five aisles, and a transept 282 feet wide with three aisles; the height of the nave is about 202 feet, that of the two towers, 515 feet. Among the numerous works of art, the most famous are the picture (Dombild) painted by Stephen Lochner about 1450, the triptych over the high altar, the 96 choir seats of the sanctuary, and the shrine in which are kept the relics of the Three Kings in the treasury of the sacristy. The last is considered the most remarkable medieval example of the goldsmith's art extant. Among the other churches of the city, the most noteworthy of those dating from the Romanesque period are Saint Gereon, Saint Ursula, Saint Mary in the Capitol, Saint Pantaleon, and the church of the Apostles; from the Transition and the Gothic periods, Saint Cunibert, Saint Mary in Lyskirchen, the church of the Minorites; from more recent times, the Jesuit church, Saint Mary Pantaleon, and Saint Mauritius. The city contains about 25 charitable institutions under Catholic management.

The Archbishopric

According to ancient legend a disciple of Saint Peter was the first Bishop of Cologne, but the first historically authenticated bishop was Saint Maternus, who was present in 314 at the Synod of Arles. Among the earliest bishops the most prominent are: Euphrates, who took part in the Council of Sardica (344) and in 346 was deposed as a heretic by a general synod of Gaul; Saint Severinus (347-400), Saint Cunibert (623-63?), councillor of the Frankish kings Dagobert and Sigibert; Anno I (711-15), who brought the remains of Saint Lambert from Maastricht to Liège; Saint Agilulfus (747-51); Hildebold (785-819), chancellor under Charlemagne and, in 799, first metropolitan of Cologne, whose suffragan sees were Liège, Utrecht, Muenster, Bremen, Osnabrueck, and, after 829, Minden. During the vacancy of the archiepiscopal office (842-50) Bremen was cut off from the Archdiocese of Cologne, in spite of the protests of Gunthar (850-71). Willibert (870-89) assisted Ludwig the German to overcome Charles the Bald, by which action the archbishopric became finally a part of the German Empire. Under Hermann I (890-924) Bremen was definitively separated from Cologne. In 954 Bruno I (953-65) was made Duke of Lorraine by his brother, the Emperor Otto the Great; in this way the foundation was laid for the temporal power of the archbishopric of Cologne. For though Bruno's successors did not inherit the ducal rank, they retained a considerable territory (the Kölngau, or district of Cologne), in time increased by the family possessions and acquisitions of many archbishops. Saint Heribert (999-1021) was very active in promoting the welfare of his diocese, was made chancellor for Italy by Otto III, and aided Henry II at the time of his expedition to Rome in 1004. Piligrim (1021-36), who accompanied Henry II and Conrad II on their expeditions to Italy, obtained for himself and for his successors the office of imperial chancellor for Italy. Hermann II (1036-56) was followed by Saint Anno II, who did much for the authority and honour of the See of Cologne; at the same time he was the first archbishop to come into open conflict with the city, now rapily growing in numbers and wealth.

As princes of the German Empire, the archbishops were very frequently involved in dissensions between popes and emperors, often to the injury of their Church, since they were frequently in opposition to the pope. Frederick I (1100-31) was the last Archbishop of Cologne to be invested with the episcopal ring and crosier; in 1111, during the three-days fight in the streets of Rome, he saved the Emperor Henry V from defeat, after his imprisonment of Pope Paschal II, but in 1114 abandoned the imperial party. His successor, Bruno II (1132-37), was again imperial chancellor for Italy, which office, after the incumbency of Arnold II of Wied (1151-56), was permanently attached to the Archbishop of Cologne. Rainald of Dassel (1159-67), the chancellor of Frederick Barbarossa, and Philip I of Heinsberg (1167-91) increased the prestige of the see; the latter prelate, after the fall of Henry the Lion, obtained as a fief for himself and his successors the western part of the Duchy of Saxony, under the title of Duke of Westphalia and Engern. One of the most energetic archbishops in the following years was Saint Engelbert. In his short reign (1216-21) he furthered the moral and religious life by several synods, and by the favour he showed the new orders of Franciscans and Dominicans; he also restored order within the limits of his see, and successfully opposed the continued efforts for civic independence. The long political conflict between the archbishops and the city, during which Conrad of Hostaden (1238-61) and Engelbert II of Falkenburg (1261-74) made many concessions was finally, as above stated, settled in favour of the city, under Siegfried of Westerburg (1274-97). The reconciliation of the archbishops with the city effected by Wikbold of Holte (1297-1304) brought with it increasing influence in the affairs of the German Empire. To the injury of his see, Henry II of Virneburg (1304-32) allied himself with Frederick the Handsome, while Walram of Juelich (1332-49) obtained many privileges from the Emperor Charles IV, whom he had raised to the imperial dignity against Louis of Bavaria. In his time the Black Death spread over Germany and entailed great misery. In 1356, under William of Gennep (1349-62), the dignity of imperial elector, recognized since about the middle of the thirteenth century as belonging to the archiepiscopal office, was formally acknowledged by the Golden Bull. Kuno of Falkenstein (1366-71), also Archbishop of Trier, added (1370) to the temporalities of the see the County of Arnsberg. After his resignation he was succeeded by Frederick III of Saarwerden (1370-1414), who adhered to Urban VI on the occasion of the Western Schism; after Urban's death he followed a vacillating policy. His successor, Dietrich II of Mörs (1414-63), sought to make Cologne the strongest territorial power in Western Germany, but he was unfortunate in his political enterprises, and brought a heavy burden of debt on his see. Under him the city of Soest was lost to Cologne. After his death, and before the appointment of a new archbishop, the cathedral chapter, the nobility (Ritterschaft) and the cities of the archiepiscopal state (Erzstift) concluded an agreement (Erblandsvereinigung) with regard to the archbishop's hereditary lands, whereby the prelate's rights as temporal lord were considered limited in the archepiscopal State, whose territory, it must be remembered, did not coincide with the ecclesiastical limits of the archdiocese. This agreement was henceforth sworn to by each archbishop at his election. Ruprecht von der Pfalz (1463-80) squandered the revenues of the see, sought by force to gain control of the cities and castles previously mortgaged, and thereby entered into conflicts with the holders of the mortgages. Violence, arson, and devastation visited the diocese in consequence. In 1478 Ruprecht was captured and remained a prisoner until his death. His successor, Hermann IV of Hesse, devoted his energy to the restoration of order, paid a part of the public debt, and, by the diocesan synod of 1483, whose decrees he vigorously enforced, furthered the intellectual and moral elevation of clergy and people. Philip II of Daun (1508-15) walked in the footsteps of his predecessor.

The government of Hermann V of Wied (1515-47) brought trouble and disaster on his see. At the Diet of Worms he at first opposed the religious doctrines of Luther. He urged the banning of the Reformer and held a provincial synod in 1536; gradually, however, he turned away from the Catholic Faith, chose adherents of Luther for his counsellors, and allowed the new doctrines to be preached in his diocese. When he openly favoured the spread of Protestantism, he was suspended in 1546, and forced to resign (1547). By the advice of excellent men, such as Gropper, Billick, and others, Adolph III of Schauenburg (1546-56) took strong measures against the preachers brought in by Hermann, and published vigorous decrees against immoral priests. His brother Anton (1556-58) followed a similar course. Under Johann Gebhard of Mansfeld (1558-62) Utrecht ceased to be a suffragan of Cologne, and the Deanery of Zyfflich was incorporated with the newly founded See of Roermond. After the brief reign of Frederick IV of Wied (1562-67) and that of the vigorous Salentin of Isenburg (1567-77), who resigned because he did not wish to take priest's orders, Gebhard II Truchsess of Waldburg, succeeded to the office. He followed the evil course of Hermann of Wied. At first loyal to the Church, he became a Calvinist in 1582, owing to his passion for Agnes von Mansfeld, and sought to Protestantize the see in 1583; he was put under the ban of the empire and deposed, and Duke Ernest of Bavaria chosen as his successor. With Protestant aid Gebhard sought to keep possession of his diocese. But the War of Cologne (Kölnischer Krieg), which lasted five years, and brought untold misery on the land, ended in victory for the Catholic party. These attempts of Hermann of Wied and Gebhard to alienate the archdiocese from the Catholic Faith led to the establishment of a permanent papal nunciature in Cologne which existed from 1584 to the extinction of the archiepiscopal State at the end of the eighteenth century (see NUNCIO; SECULARIZATION).

Ernest of Bavaria (1583-1612) was the first of the five princes of the house of Wittelsbach who held the Electorate of Cologne until 1761. Ferdinand of Bavaria (1612-50), Maximilian Henry (1650-88), Joseph Clemens (1688-1723), and Clemens Augustus I (1727-61) succeeded him. Following the tradition of their princely house, these five archbishops were intensely loyal to the Church, and upheld Catholicism in the archdiocese, which, however, had lost 122 parishes in consequence of the Reformation. However, in consequence of the repeated union of several bishoprics in the hands of these Bavarian prelates, the political administration of the territory was held to be of primary, its religious government of secondary, importance. Moreover, the foreign policy of these five Bavarian archbishops was not always fortunate. By their alliance with France, especially during the Spanish and Austrian Wars of Succession, they furthered the political dissolution of the old German Empire (begun in the Thirty Years War) and encouraged the anti-Hapsburg policy of France which aimed at the final overthrow of the German imperial power. Similarly, their friendly relations to France favoured the introduction of rationalism into Cologne. This spirit of opposition to the Church and to the authority of the popes had a still stronger hold upon Archbishop Maximilian Frederick of Königseck (1761-84). In 1771 he founded an academy at Bonn in opposition to the loyal Catholic University of Cologne, and in 1781 issued in favour of the new academy an order according to which attendance at the University of Cologne was punished by inability to hold any office, either ecclesiastical or civil, in the diocese. The last Elector of Cologne, Maximilian Francis of Austria (1785-1801), took part in the anti-papal Congress of Ems (q. v.), nominated Eulogius Schneider as professor in the Academy of Bonn, which he raised to the rank of a University in 1786, and instituted reforms similar to those enacted by his brother, the Emperor Joseph II, in Austria. As brother of Marie Antoinette, he was at first opposed to the French Revolution, but soon adopted a policy of inactivity which ultimately resulted in the loss of independence both by the city and the electorate. At the approach of the victorious French army the elector left his residence at Bonn, never to see it again. The French entered Cologne, 26 October, 1794, and Bonn, 8 November. The conquered territory between the Meuse, the Rhine, and the Moselle was divided into four departments governed by a civil commissioner at Mainz, and incorporated with France by the Peace of Luneville in 1801. In 1796 all the ecclesiastical property in the part of the archdiocese held by the French was seized by the civil authority; in 1802 all religious orders and congregations were suppressed, and their property confiscated. By the Concordat of 1801 between the Apostolic See and Napoleon I, nearly all of the former archdiocese on the left bank of the Rhine was given to the newly founded See of Aachen. The old ecclesiastical organization remained undisturbed in the archdiocesan territory on the right bank of the Rhine. After the death of Maximilian Francis (1801), the cathedral chapter, which had taken refuge in Arnsberg, chose the Austrian Archduke Anthony as his successor, but he never occupied his see, owing to Prussian opposition. In 1803 the remainder of the electorate was secularized, an inglorious end for the ancient Archbishopric of Cologne. The loss to the Catholic Church in Germany was great. The archbishopric, i.e., the territory in which the archbishop was also temporal ruler, included in its Rhenish territory alone (without Westphalia) 60 square miles and about 199,000 inhabitants (in 1797), of whom 180,000 were on the left bank of the Rhine.

In 1750 the archdiocese contained 860 parishes with as many parish churches, 300 benefices, 400 chapels, 42 collegiate chapters, 21 abbeys (10 Benedictine, 4 Premonstratensian, 7 Cistercian), 5 Benedictine provostships, 18 Minorite and 24 Franciscan monasteries, 2 Franciscan houses of the Third Order. There were also 20 Capuchin houses, 6 Dominican, 3 Carthusian, 11 Augustinian, 8 of Knights of the Cross, 9 Jesuit (suppressed in 1773), 2 Servite, and 2 Alexian. The Brothers of Saint Anthony, the Carmelites, the Zionites, the Brothers of Saint Martin had each one house. There were five establishments of the Teutonic Order and nine of the Knights of Malta. The female orders had a total of 146 nunneries (see below, Mooren, II1, 426 sqq.). The loss in costly gold and silver church plate, vestments and the treasures of the libraries and archives, is incalculable. When the disorders of the Napoleonic regime had passed, the archdiocese was re-established by Pius VII. Its territory had previously been made a part of Prussia by the Congress of Vienna, in 1815. On 16 July, 1821, by the Bull "De Salute animarum" the Archdiocese of Aachen was abolished, the church of St. Peter in Cologne was again made a metropolitan church, and the territories of the Archdiocese of Cologne defined anew, with its present boundaries, except for a few unimportant changes. It then included 44 deaneries and 685 parishes (536 on the left bank of the Rhine and 149 on the right bank). On the 20th of December, 1824, Ferdinand August von Spiegel was named by the pope as the first archbishop of the new see; on 20 May, 1825, he took charge of the ecclesiastical government, which had been carried on by the vicar capitular, Johann Hermann Joseph von Caspars zu Weiss, from 1801 till his death (1822), and after that time by Prothonotary Johann Wilhelm Schmitz. Archbishop von Spiegel's administration (1824-35) was in many ways beneficial. He alleviated many evils which had crept in during the previous years and made serious efforts for the education of the clergy and for the reorganization of his diocese; nevertheless, he was too subservient to the Prussian Government, and entered into a secret agreement with it in regard to mixed marriages, contrary to the spirit of the ecclesiastical marriage laws. His successor, Clemens Augustus, Freiherr von Droste zu Vischering, who vigorously opposed the spread of the Hermesian heresy, soon came into conflict with the Prussian Government on the question of mixed marriages, as a result of which he was taken prisoner, 20 November, 1837, and confined in the castle of Minden. This event caused great excitement throughout Germany, and helped to revive the religious life and activity of the German Catholics. When Frederick William IV came to the throne, the archbishop resigned his office in favour of his coadjutor, Johann von Geissel, Bishop of Speyer. As archbishop (1845-64), he displayed a most auspicious activity and infused fresh religious vigour into his diocese. Great injury was done the Church of Cologne by the Prussian Kulturkampf. During its course Archbishop Paul Melchers (1866-85) was imprisoned by the Government in 1874 (till 9 October), and then was forced to leave his diocese. The number of priests fell from 1947 to about 1500, and many parishes remained for years without a priest. After the conclusion of peace between Rome and Prussia, Archbishop Melchers abdicated his see. His successors, Philip Krementz (1885-99; cardinal, 1893), Hubert Simar (1899-1902), and Anton Fischer (since 6 November, 1902; cardinal since 22 June, 1903) devoted themselves to repairing the evil done by the Kulturkampf and developing to a prosperous state the religious and ecclesiastical life of the diocese.

Statistics

The Archdiocese of Cologne includes the Prussian administrative districts of Cologne and Aachen, the greater part of the district of Düsseldorf and small portions of the districts of Coblenz, Trier, and Arnsberg, altogether, 4219 square miles, with about 2,700,000 Catholics (census of 1 December, 1900, 2,522,648). The parishes in 1907 numbered 917, with 51 deaneries; the priests included 1934 secular priests (of whom 214 were stationed in the cathedral city), 208 regulars, and about 60 priests from other dioceses. The metropolitan chapter consists of 1 cathedral, provost (Domprobst), 1 cathedral dean (Domdechant), 10 residential, and 4 honorary canons. The archbishop is chosen by the cathedral chapter, the Bishops of Trier, Münster, and Paderborn are his suffragans. Within the city of Cologne there are 39 parishes and 3 military churches grouped in two deaneries. In addition to the cathedral chapter there is a collegiate chapter at Aachen. The educational institutions under ecclesiastical control include the archiepiscopal seminary for priests at Cologne, with 83 students (1906-07), the Collegium Albertinum at Bonn (175 students), the Collegium Leoninum at Bonn (104 students), the archiepiscopal seminaries for boys at Neuss, Muenstereifel, Rheinbach, and Opladen, 4 high schools and boarding-colleges for boys, and 26 boarding-schools for girls (the latter conducted by female orders). For the higher education of the clergy there is the Catholic faculty of theology at the University of Bonn, with 14 ecclesiastical professors, in addition to the (Cologne) seminary for priests already mentioned. Ecclesiastical teachers are also employed at 102 secondary schools (gymnasia, technical gymnasia, high schools, academies, and Latin schools, etc.), and 5 Catholic teachers' seminaries, at 42 Catholic girls' high schools and 5 Catholic training schools for women teachers. The total attendance at all the intermediate and higher schools of the archdiocese averages almost 17,400 Catholic boys and 11,700 Catholic girls. The total attendance at the primary schools (Volksschulen) is 428,000 children in 11,560 classes. (For the educational relations between the Church and the State see PRUSSIA.)

The religious orders of men in the archdiocese have 42 establishments with about 1100 members, and the orders and congregations of women have 401 with 6200 sisters, there being in the cathedral city alone 43 religious houses with 1140 inmates. The following orders or congregations are represented: Benedictines (1 establishment), Dominicans (2), Franciscans (9), Camillians (1), Capuchins (2), Carthusians (1), Redemptorists (2), Trappists (1), Fathers of the Holy Ghost and Immaculate Heart of Mary (2), Alexian Brothers (9), Brothers of Charity (6), Brothers of Saint Francis (6), Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration (3), Borromean Sisters (18), Cellites (86) Sisters of Christ (4), Congregation of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Saint Peter Fourier (1), Handmaids of Christ (69), Sisters of Saint Dominic (10), Order of Saint Elizabeth (35), Sisters of Saint Francis (96), Ladies of the Good Shepherd (3), Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus (10), Carmelite Sisters (3), Daughters of the Holy Cross (15), Sisters of Christian Charity (4), Penitent Recollects (1), School Sisters of Notre Dame (2), Ursulines (9), Sisters of Saint Vincent (31). The orders of men are devoted partly to pastoral and mission work, partly to charitable work; the orders of women devote themselves almost entirely either to educational work (instruction and care of young girls in various establishments, sewing schools, girls' high schools, and boarding-schools) or to charitable work in refuges, working-women's homes, servant-girls' homes, the care of the sick in hospitals, hospices, etc.

It is impossible to mention here all the numerous charities and organizations found within the limits of the archdiocese; complete statistics are given in M. Brandt's book, "Die katholischen Wohlthätigkeits-Anstalten und Vereine sowie das katholischsociale Vereinswesen ins besondere in der Erzdiöcese Köln" (Cologne, 1896). In the cathedral city alone there are more than 400 religious societies and brotherhoods. The most important of the organizations and charitable institutions in the archdiocese which are not limited to a single parish are as follows: 182 congregations and 71 societies for young men, 160 Catholic working-men's clubs, 74 Catholic journeymen's associations (Gesellenvereine), 26 miners' associations, 29 congregations and societies of merchants, 10 societies for women employed in stores, 55 homes and schools for working-women, 22 homes for the insane and idiots, 10 homes for servant girls, 9 refuges for fallen women, 90 orphanages; also the Elizabeth societies and 225 conferences of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, the Saint Regis societies, and others.

The most important churches are the cathedral (Dom) of Cologne (see above), the cathedral of Aachen, the churches at Cologne mentioned above, the cathedral churches at Bonn and Essen, the church of Saint Quirinus in Neuss, the churches of the former Abbots of Werden, Knechtsteden, Cornelimünster, and Steinfeld, the double church in Schwarz-Rheindorf, etc.

A complete bibliography of the city by KRUDEWIG is given in Die Kunstdenkmaeler der Stadt Köln (Düsseldorf, 1906), I, Pt. I The most important works are: BIANCO, Die alte Universitaet Köln (Cologne, 1855), I; KEUSSEN, Die Matrikel der Universitaet Köln (Bonn, 1892); ENNEN, Frankreich und der Niederrhein oder Geschichte von Stadt und Kurstaat Köln siet dem 30 jahrigen Kriege (2 vols., Cologne, 1855-56); IDEM, Geschichte der Stadt Köln (5 vols., Cologne and Neuss, 1863-80); Quellen zur Geschichte der Stadt Köln, ed. by EENNEN and ECKERTZ (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-79); Chronikender deutschen Staedte, vols. XII-XIV (Leipzig, 1875-77); Mitteilungen aus dem Stadtarchiv von Köln (32 vols., Cologne, 1883-1904); Kölner Schreinsurkunden des 12. Jahrhunderts, ed. by HOENIGER (2 vols., Bonn, 1884-94); HOEHLBAUM-LAU, Das Buch Weinsberg, Kölner Denkwuerdigkeiten aus den 16. Jahrhundert (4 vols., Leipzig and Bonn, 1886-98); Köln und seine Bauten (Cologne, 1888); MOHR, Die Kirchen von Köln (Berlin, 1889); KORTH, Köln in Mittelalter (Cologne, 1891), good bibliography; STEIN, Akten zur Geschichte der Verfassung und Verwaltung der Stadt Köln in 14. und 15. Jahrhundert (2 vols., Bonn, 1893-95); MERLO, Kölnische Kuenstler in alter und neuer Zeit (Düsseldorf, 1895); SCHIEBLER AND ALDENHOVEN, Geschichte der Kölner Malerschule (2 vols. with 100 photogravures, Luebeck, 1894-96); KNIPPING, Die Kölner Stadtrechnungen des Mittelalters (2 vols., Bonn, 1897-98); LAU, Die Entwicklung der kommunalen Verfassung und Verwaltung der Stadt Köln bis zum Jahre 1396 (Bonn, 1898); HELMKEN, Köln und seine Sehenswuerdigkeiten (20th ed., Cologne, 1903); H. v. LOESCH, Kölner Zunfturkunden (2 vols., Bonn, 1905); KEUSSEN, Historische Topographie der Stadt Köln in Mittelalter (Bonn, 1906); STEFFENS, Kölner Kirchenkalender fuer das Jahr 1907 (Cologne, 1907). For the cathedral consult: BOISSEREE, Geschichte und Beschreibung des Doms zu Köln (2nd ed., Munich, 1842); BOCK, Der Kunst- und Reliquienschatz des Kölner Doms (Cologne and Neuss, 1870); SCHMITZ, Der Dom zu Köln (150 tables, with text by ENNEN, Cologne, 1868-76); WIETHASE, Der Dom zu Köln (40 plates with text, Frankfurt, 1884-1889); HELMKEN, Der Dom zu Köln (4th ed., Cologne, 1899); LINDNER, Der Dom zu Köln (plates, Haarlem, 1904).

The older sources and works that treat of the Archdiocese of Cologne are given by WALTER in Das alte Erzstift und die Reichsstadt Köln (Bonn, 1866), 3-18. Full bibliographical references, especially for the individual archbishops, are found in the Handbuch der Erzdioecese Keoln (4th ed., Cologne, 1905), also the list of the assistant bishops, general vicars, and nuncios of Cologne. The most important works of reference are: BINTERIM AND MOOREN, Die alte und neue Erzdioecese Köln (4 vols., Mainz, 1828-30; 2d ed. in 2 vols., Düsseldorf, 1892-93); LACOMBLET, Urkundenbuch fuer die Geschichte des Niederrheins (4 vols., Düsseldorf, 1840-58); LACOMBLET, Archiv fuer die Geschichte des Niederrheins (7 vols., Düsseldorf, 1832-70); SIEBERTZ, Urkundenbuch fuer Landes- und Rechtsgeschichte des Herzogtums Westfalen (3 vols., Arnsberg, 1839-54); MERING AND REISCHERT, Die Bischoefe und Erzbischoefe von Köln (2 vols., Cologne, 1842-44); BINTERIM, Die geistlichen Gerichteinder Erzdioecese Köln (Düsseldorf, 1849); ENNEN, Geschichte der Reformation im Bereiche der alten Erzdioecese Köln (Cologne, 1849); KAMPSCHULTE, Kirchlich-politische Statistik des vormals zur Erzdioecese Köln gehoerigen Westfalen (Lippstadt, 1869); PODLECH, Geschichte der Erzdioecese Köln (Mainz, 1879); DUMONT, Descriptio Archidioecesis Coloniensis (Cologne, 1879); IDEM, Geschichte der Pfarreien der Erzdioecese Köln (Cologne, 1883- 1900), I-X; LEY, Die koelnische Kirchengeschichte im Anschluss an die Geschichte der koelnischen Bischoefe und Erzbischoefe (Cologne, 1883); Geschichtlicher Atlas der Rheinprovinz (Bonn, 1894-1901); KLEINERMANNS, Die Heiligen auf den bishoeflichen bzw. erzbischoeflichen Stuhle von Köln (Cologne, 1895), I; JANSEN, Die Herzogsgewalt der Erzbischoefe von Köln in Westfalen (Munich, 1895); KNIEPING, Die Regesten der Erzbischoefe von Köln im Mittelalter (vol. II., Bonn, 1900; vol. III in press, 1907); SAUERLAND, Urkunden und Regesten zur Geschichte der Rheinlande aus dem vatikanischen Archiv (vol. I-III., Bonn, 1902-05; vol. IV in press, 1907); KORTH, Die Patrocinien der Kirchen und Kapellen im Erzbistum Köln (Düsseldorf, 1904); Kunstdenkmaeler der Rheinproivinz (Düsseldorf, 1891-); Bau- und Kunstdenkmaeler von Westfalen (Paderborn, 1893-); WOLF, Aus Kurkoeln im 16. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1906); EWALD, Die Siegel der Erzbischoefe von Köln 948-1795 (Bonn, 1906); Westfaelisches Urkundenbuch, vol. III, Die Urkunden des kolnischen Westfalen vom Jahre 1200- 1300 (Muenster, 18__-1907). For the Reformation period see: DROUVEN, Die Reformation in der koelnischen Kirchenprovinz zur Zeit Hermanns V. von Wied (Bonn, 1876); LOSSEN, Der koelnische Krieg (I, Gotha, 1882; II, Munich, 1897), also Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland (Pt. I, Paderborn, 1895 and 1899; Pt. III, vols. I and II, Berlin, 1892 and 1894). The most important periodicals are: Annalen des historischen Vereins fuer den Niederrhein ins besondere die alte Erzdioecese Köln (at present 83 vols., Cologne, 1855-). Jahrbuecher des Vereins von Altertumsfreunden im Rheinland (Bonn, 1842-); Westdeutsche Zeitschrift fuer Geschichte und Kunst (Trier, 1882-), with supplementary volumes.

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