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Franz Xaver von Baader

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Benedict Franz von Baader (27 March 1765 – 23 May 1841), born Benedikt Franz Xaver Baader, was a Catholic theologian, philosopher, and mining engineer from Germany. Resisting the empiricism of his day, he denounced most Western philosophy since Descartes as trending into atheism and has been considered a revival of the Scholastic school. He was an important theorist of androgyny.[1]

He was one of the most influential theologians of his age but his influence on subsequent philosophy has been less marked, and tends to be submerged into the esoteric discussions of later thinkers rather than cited explicitly in major publications. Today Baader is thought to have re-introduced theological engagement with Meister Eckhart into academia and even Christianity and Theosophy more generally.[2]

Life

Benedikt Franz Xaver Baader[3] was born in Munich, Bavaria, on 27 March 1765.[4] He was the third son of Joseph Franz von Paula Baader[5] (15 September 1733 – 16 February 1794) and Maria Dorothea Rosalia von Schöpf (25 October 1742 – 5 February 1829),[6] who were married on 23 May 1761. In 1775, Franz's father Joseph became the court physician of Maximilian III Joseph,[7] the elector of Bavaria. (The elector died two years later.)

Franz' two older brothers were both distinguished men. Clemens Alois Andreas Baader[8] (8 April 1762 – 23 March 1838) was an author. Joseph Anton Ignaz Baader (30 September 1763 – 20 November 1835) was an engineer.[9]

Franz studied medicine at Ingolstadt and Vienna, and for a short time assisted his father in his medical practice. However, Franz soon discovered that life as a physician did not suit him, and he decided to become a mining engineer instead.[4] He studied under Abraham Gottlob Werner at Freiberg, travelled through several of the mining districts in north Germany, and resided in England from 1792 to 1796.[4]

In England, Franz von Baader became acquainted with the empiricism of David Hume, David Hartley, and William Godwin, which was extremely distasteful to him. But he also came into contact with the mystical speculations of Meister Eckhart, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin, and above all those of Jakob Böhme, which were more to his liking. In 1796, he returned to Germany and, in Hamburg, became acquainted with F. H. Jacobi, with whom he became close friends. He also came into contact with Friedrich Schelling, and the works he published during this period were manifestly influenced by that philosopher, though Baader maintained his independence from Schelling.[4][10]

Their friendship continued till about the year 1822, when Baader's denunciation of modern philosophy in his letter to Tsar Alexander I entirely alienated Schelling. During this time, Baader continued to apply himself to his profession.[11]

He gained a prize of 12,000 gulden (≈117 kg silver) for his new method of employing sodium sulfate instead of potash in the making of glass. From 1817 to 1820, he held the post of superintendent of mines and was raised to the rank of nobility for his services.[12] He retired in 1820, and thereafter published one of the best of his works, Fermenta Cognitionis in 6 parts from 1822 to 1825. In it, he combats modern philosophy and recommends the study of Böhme.[12]

In 1826, when the new university was opened in Munich, he was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative theology. He published some of his lectures there in 4 parts from 1827 to 1836 under the title Spekulative Dogmatik.[12]

His 1831 "Forty Sentences from a Religious Erotic" was dedicated to Emilie Linder, a Munich painter.[13]

In 1838, he publicly opposed the interference of the Roman Catholic Church in civil matters and, in consequence, was interdicted from lecturing on the philosophy of religion during the last three years of his life. He died in Munich on 23 May 1841.[12] He is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich.

Philosophy

Baader frequently wrote in obscure aphorisms or mystical symbols and analogies.[12][14] His doctrines are mostly expounded in short detached essays, in comments on the writings of Böhme and St-Martin, or in his extensive correspondence and journals.[15] Baader starts from the position that human reason by itself can never reach the end at which it aims and maintains that we cannot throw aside the presuppositions of faith, church, and tradition. His point of view may be compared to Scholasticism, since like the Scholastics he believed that theology and philosophy are not opposed but that reason has to make clear the truths given by authority and revelation.[12] In his attempts to draw the realms of faith and knowledge still closer, however, he approaches the mysticism of Meister Eckhart, Paracelsus, and Böhme.[12] Our existence depends upon God's cognition of us.[15][16] All self-consciousness is at the same time God-consciousness, and all knowledge is knowing with, consciousness of, or participation in God.[12]

Theology

Baader's philosophy is thus essentially a form of theosophy.[12] God is not to be conceived as mere abstract Being (Latin: substantia) but as the primary Will at the basis of all things and an everlasting process or activity (actus).[12] This process functions as a self-generation of God, in which we may distinguish two aspects—the immanent or esoteric and the eminent or exoteric.[12] Only insofar as the "primitive will" thinks or is conscious of itself can it distinguish knower and known, producer and produced, from which proceeds the power to become spirit.[12] God has His reality only insofar as He is absolute spirit.[12] The Trinity (called Ternar in Baader) is not a given but is rendered possible, is mirrored in, and takes place through the eternal and impersonal idea or wisdom of God, which exists beside through not distinct from the "primitive will".[12] Personality and concrete reality is given to separate aspects of this Trinity through nature, which is eternally and necessarily produced by God.[12] These aspects of existence do not occur successively within time but occur sub specie aeternitatis as necessary elements of the self-evolution of divine Being.[12] Its "nature" is not to be confused with the nature of Creation, which is an unnecessary, free, and non-temporal act of God's love and will which cannot be speculatively deduced but must be accepted as a historic fact.[12]

Created beings were originally of three orders: the intelligent or angels; the non-intelligent material world; and man, who mediated between them.[12] Angels and man were endowed with freedom. The Fall of Adam and Lucifer were historic facts which were possible, though not necessary.[12] Baader considered the angels to have fallen through a desire to ascend to equality with God (i.e., pride) and man through permitting himself to sink to the level of nature (via the various bodily sins).[12] Baader considered that the world as we know it—with time, space, and matter—only began after the fall of mankind and was created as a gift from God permitting humanity the opportunity for redemption.[12] Baader developed theories of physiology and anthropology over a number of works based upon this understanding of the universe, but in the main coincides with the ideas of Böhme.[12] Principally, he traces the adverse effects of various sins and advocates the restoration of natural harmonies by its removal.[12]

His system of ethics rejects the idea that obedience to moral laws alone (as in Kantianism) is enough. Instead, though humanity has lost the ability to accomplish this on its own, it is necessary to realize and participate in our place in the divine order.[12] As grace is required for such a realization, no ethical theory neglecting sin and redemption is satisfactory or even possible.[12] Mere works are never sufficient, but Christ's healing virtue must be received, chiefly through prayer and the sacraments of the church.[17]

Baader was regarded as among the greatest speculative theologians of 19th-century Catholicism and influenced, among others, Richard Rothe, Julius Müller, and Hans Lassen Martensen.[18]

Politics

Baader argued that two things were requisite in the state: common submission to the ruler (without which there would be civil war or invasion) and inequality of rank (without which there would be no organization).[18] As Baader considered God alone to be the true ruler of mankind, he argued that loyalty to a government can be secured or given only when it was truly Christian;[18] he opposed despotism, socialism, liberalism equally.[18] His ideal state was a civil community ruled by the Catholic Church, whose principles opposed both passive and irrational pietism and the excessively rational doctrines of Protestantism.[18]

Regarding the sexes

One of Baader's central ideas is his concept of androgyny:

The Androgyne is the harmonious fusion of the sexes, resulting in a certain asexuality, a synthesis which creates an entirely new being, and which does not merely juxtapose the two sexes 'in an enflamed opposition' as the hermaphrodite does.

Following the literal wording of the first of Genesis's two accounts of the creation of man, Baader says that Man was originally an androgynous being. Neither man nor woman is the "image and likeness of God" but only the androgyne. Both sexes are equally fallen from the original divinity of the androgyne. Androgynism is man's likeness to God, his supernatural upsurge. Hence it follows that sexes must cease and vanish. From these positions Baader interpreted the sacrament of marriage as a symbolic restitution of angelic bisexuality:

The secret and the sacrament of true love in the indissoluble bond of the two lovers, consists in each helping the other, each in himself, towards the restoration of the androgyne, the pure and whole humanity.

Ultimately Christ's sacrifice will make possible a restoration of the primal androgyny. Baader believed that primordial androgyny would return as the world neared its end.[19]

Works

Several years after his death, Baader's works were collected and edited by a number of his disciples. This was published in 16 volumes at Leipzig between 1851 and 1860, organized by topic.[20] Vol. I dealt with epistemology, Vol. II with metaphysics, Vol. III with natural philosophy, Vol. IV with anthropology, Vols. V & VI with social philosophy, Vols. VII through X with philosophy of religion, Vol. XI with Baader's diaries, Vol. XII with his commentaries on St-Martin, Vol. XIII with his commentaries on Böhme, Vol. XIV with time, and Vol. XV with his biography and correspondence.[20] Vol. XVI contained an index to the others, as well as an able sketch of his system by Lutterbeck.[18] Valuable introductions by the editors are prefixed to the several volumes.[18]

  • Texte zur Naturphilosophie (1792–1808). Historisch-kritische kommentierte Ausgabe. Herausgegeben von Alberto Bonchino. Leiden/Paderborn 2021 (= Franz von Baader: Ausgewählte Werke, Bd. 1), ISBN 978-3-506-77937-3, E-Book ISBN 978-3-657-77937-6
  • Texte zur Mystik und Theosophie (1808–1818). Historisch-kritische kommentierte Ausgabe. Herausgegeben von Alberto Bonchino. Leiden/Paderborn 2021 (= Franz von Baader: Ausgewählte Werke, Bd. 2), ISBN 978-3-506-78075-1, E-Book ISBN 978-3-657-78075-4
  • Fermenta Cognitionis (1822–1825). Historisch-kritische kommentierte Ausgabe. Herausgegeben von Alberto Bonchino. Leiden/Paderborn 2024 (= Franz von Baader: Ausgewählte Werke, Bd. 3), ISBN 978-3-506-79027-9, E-Book ISBN 978-3-657-79027-2
  • Vorlesungen über speculative Dogmatik (1828–1838). Historisch-kritische kommentierte Ausgabe. Herausgegeben von Alberto Bonchino. Leiden/Paderborn 2024 (= Franz von Baader: Ausgewählte Werke, Bd. 4), ISBN 978-3-506-79028-6, E-Book ISBN 978-3-657-79028-9

From the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia

Franz Xaver von Baader — German philosopher, born at Munich, 1765; died at the same place, 23 May, 1841.

I. The idealistic stream of German philosophy which started with Kant and culminated, in two divergent branches, in Hegel and Schopenhauer, encountered on the one side an opposing current of empirical realism setting back from Herbart, and on the other a partly reactionary, and yet partly concurrent movement originating in certain Catholic thinkers. Prominent among the latter was Baader. Having entered the University of Ingolstadt at sixteen and taken his doctorate at nineteen, he continued his medical studies two years longer at Vienna and then assisted his father, who was court physician. He soon gave this up, however, for mining engineering and after considerable travel in Germany he spent about five years in England (1791-96), where he became acquainted with the mysticism of Böhme and with the extremely opposite empiricism of Hume and Hartley. The work of William Godwin, "Enquiry concerning Political Justice", not only called his attention to moral and social questions but also led him to German philosophy, especially to that of Kant. Baader had a temperamental sympathy for the German Protestant mystic Böhme, but for Kant's philosophy, especially its ethical autonomism, viz.: that human reason alone and apart from God is the primary source of the supreme rule of conduct, he had nothing but disgust. This he calls "devil's morality" and fiercely declares that were Satan visibly to reappear on earth it would be in the garb of a professor of moral philosophy. For the English sceptics he had both a natural and an acquired aversion. Reared and educated as a Catholic, though holding some decidedly un-Catholic notions, he could find no satisfaction in reason divorced from faith. Passing through Hamburg on his return from England he met Jacoby, with whom he long lived in close friendship. Schelling likewise counted him as a friend and owed to him some of the mystical trend of his system. On his return to Germany Baader was made Superintendent of the Bavarian mines and was subsequently raised to the nobility for his services. He was awardeda prize of 12,000 gulden given by the Austrian Government for an important discovery relating to the use of Glauber salts instead of potash in the manufacturing of glass. Retiring from business in 1820 he soon afterwards published his "Fragmenta Cognitionis" (1822-25), and at the opening of the University of Munich, in 1826, he was appointed professorof speculative theology. His philosophico-religious lectures (published as "Speculative Dogmatik", 1827-36) attracted much attention. In 1838, however, a ministerial order prohibiting laymen from lecturing on such subjects obliged him to restrict himself to anthropology. Vigorous in body and in mind he pursued his intellectual work until his final illness.

II. Baader's "Tag und Studien Büch" (Diary), printed in the first volume of his works, affords an insight into the vicissitudes of his mind and the development of his ideals. It was primarily to his early religious training under his domestic tutor, Sailer, subsequently Bishop of Landshut, that he owed the convictions with which he combatedthe prevailing rationalism by appealing to innate experience and the subjective necessity of faith. Religious reading supplemented by prayer strengthened his natural tendency towards mysticism. Then, too, his eagerness to comprehend Christianity more thoroughly than the rationalistic theology succeeded in doing — the hope of finding the key, as he says, to theworld of mind by putting himself in direct correspondence with the ideal — drew him, in an age poor in positive theology, towards a mystical literature which had combated, if not successfully, at least with earnestnessand good intent, both German and the French rationalism. Saint-Martin's "Philosophe inconnu", which fell into his hands in 1787, carried him back to Böhme and thence to the whole theosophic tradition which this German mystic had given to the modern world — to Paracelsus, Meister Eckart, Eriugena, the Cabbala, and the earlier Gnostics. He encountered on his way back to the past a tangible theology, notably in the works of St. Thomas upon which he comments in his Diary, but also in the Fathers and especially in the Bible.

Since, however, it was alien doctrine which had led him to the Catholic, the authority of the latter remained more or less confounded with that of the former. Moreover, his study of the English empiricists and of Kant's rationalism gave a critical cast to his thought if it did not add to his ideas. In placing theogonic speculations at the basis of his physical and moral ideas, and in seeking from mysticism an answer to the riddles of the universe, he thought to reach a solution of the fundamental problems of his time and realize the dream of his youth — a religious philosophy. Joining the contemplations of mysticism to the exactness of criticism he endeavoured to justify the appeal to both. Mysticism was to fructify criticism and criticism authorize mysticism. He aimed thus at opposing the negative with a positive rationalism. The transcendental truths (metaphysical, and especially theological concepts declared unknowable by Kant) were to find their justification and verification in the human, but at the same time Divinely impressed, consciousness. Reason and feeling separated by Kant were reunited by Baader. Jacoby's appeal to emotion for the certitude of transcendental truth Baader saw to be, at best, but anegative, an irrational escape, while Fichte, by making such truth the creation of the Ego, failed to account for the Ego itself. The Hegelian logomachy of the Ego and the non-Ego could no more satisfy Baader than could Schelling's assertion of the absolute identity of subject and object. He had seen from the start the sterility of Schelling's principle and had confuted its pantheism.

Baader's aim was a theistic philosophy which would embrace the worlds of nature and of spirit and afford at once a metaphysical solution of the problem of knowledge (science) and an understanding of the Christian idea and the Divine activity as manifested by revelation. Whatever be thought of this ambitious endeavour, and the Catholic student must recognize its variance both with philosophy and theology, Baader's system surpasses both in depth and in breadth all the other philosophies of his time. He owes this pre-eminence not only to a deeper penetration, but likewise to a broader survey which embraced and estimated many of the facts and truths of Christianity and the science of the past. Unfortunately the false mysticism derived from Böhme led him into a fanciful interpretation of the mysteries of faith, while his attempt at rationalizing those mysteries was often hardly less bizarre. His system, therefore, if it may so be called, had the misfortune, on the one hand, of being ignored becauseof its purpose to synthesize Christian faith and revive the old philosophy and theology; and, on the other, of being rejected because it disfigured Christian teaching by its rationalizing spirit. It consequently may be said to have exercised an intensive and transitional, rather than an extensive and definitive, influence on the movement of thought. English sensism having resulted logically in scepticism, and Kant's critical effortto save some certainty by purely subjective scrutiny having hopelessly lost the mind in a maze of its own spinning, Baader saw that the only salvation lay in a return to the traditional line of philosophy which had been broken off by Descartes. Unfortunately in resuming that line Baader unwound some of its essential strands and inwove others of less consistent fibre wherewith the remaining threads would not cohere. But in this very harking back to a saner past Baader was influential in hastening the healthier revival which was more definitely effected by his countrymen Kleutgen and Stöckl. Moreover, in so far as Baader opposed the prevailing rationalism and defended Christian truth, his influence is declared by so unprejudiced a writer as Robert Adamson to have extended beyond the precincts of Baader's Church. Rothe's "Theologische Ethik" is thoroughly impregnated with his spirit, and among others, J. Müller's "Christl. Lehre von der Sünde" and Martinsen's "Christl. Dogmatik" show evident marks of his influence.

III. It is extremely difficult to give any satisfactory conception of Baader's system within narrow limits. Baader was a most fertile writer but threw out his thoughts in aphorisms, some of which indeed he subsequently collected, but most of which received their development in reviews and personal correspondence. Even his two principal works, "Fragmenta Cognitionis" and "Speculative Dogmatik", are really mosaics and one has to seek long before discovering any unifying principles. Moreover, he moves in leaps; his style lacks coherence and order. A suggestive expression, a Latin or Franch quotation gives an unlooked-for turn to a discourse. The reader is knocked about from one side to another. Now he may be driven from logic to metaphysics and again from theology to physical philosophy. The author's ideas often run into those of others leaving no line of demarcation. Add to this the uncertainty of his terminology, his equivocal and often bizarre use, or abuse, of words and the reading of Baader becomes no easy occupation. A summary of his system may be given as follows:

(1) Man's knowledge is a participation in God's knowledge. The latter necessarily compenetrates the former which is therefore always con-scientia. Our knowledge is a gift, something received, and in this respect is faith which is therefore a voluntary acceptance of the known object from God's knowing in us and hence proceeds from the will. This, however, is preceded by an unvoluntary subjection, a necessitated desire — Nemo vult nisi videns. We experience the Indwelling Presence soliciting us to faith. Faith however, in turn, becomes the basis of knowledge in which again faith reaches its completion. Faith is thus as necessary for knowledge as knowledge is for faith. Now the content of faith is expressed by technical formulæ in religious tradition. Hence as philosophy is necessarily connected with the subjective process of faith, sois it likewise with that of tradition. Only thus can it begin and develop. Hence all science, all philosophy, is religious. Natural theology, natural ethics, etc., strictly speaking, are impossible. Philosophy arose only when religious tradition called for explication and purification. Afterwards it divorced itself, but it thus led to its own dissolution.

(2) But faith is not simply a gift (Gabe); it is also a responsibility (Aufgabe). It must be developed by reason, penetrated, vivified, and freed from the possibility of doubt. It is not memory, nor a mere relic of the past. It must cast off the temporary but retain theabiding; be permanent but progressive. Mysteries are not impenetrable, but only concealed truths: "Deum esse non creditur sed scitur" are twin truths. The whole content of religion must be reduced to exact science. There is no closed truth just as there is no closed virtue. Science proceeds from faith, but faith is developed and recast by science.

The hopeless confusion here manifest between knowledge as a natural or purely rational process, and faith, in the Catholic sense of a supernatural virtue, finds a parallel in Baader's ethics. With him the true, i.e. religious, and hence Christian, ethics knows that God Who gives the law also fulfils it in us, so that from being a burden it ceases to be a law. Fallen man has not the power to restore himself; hereditary sin, the seed of the Serpent, hinders him in this. Still he retains the "Idea", the seed of the woman, i.e. redeemableness. This possibility is actualized by God's becoming man, and thus realizing the moral law in "the Man", the Saviour, Who by overcoming temptation has destroyed evil at its centre and from within, and Who has crushed the Serpent's head. But evil, too, must be destroyed from without by constant mortification of ego-hood. In this task man cooperating with his fellows for theattainment of happiness is neither a solitary worker, as the Kantian would say, nor completely inactive, as Luther teaches. Like hereditary sin, grace propagates itself quasi per infectionem vitae. Prayer and the Eucharist place man en rapport with Christ, through Whom man, if he cooperate, will be restored to the spiritualized condition whence he fell by sin. This spiritualization thus becomes the final subjective end for the individual and society.

The religious idea here appears as the source and the life of Baader's sociology. The law of love for God and neighbour is the unitive principle of all social existence, liberty, and equality; as the opposite principle of self-love is the root of all disunion, slavery, and despotism. God is the binding source of all law, from Him is all social authority. Hence Baader strongly opposes the might-makes-right doctrine of Hobbes, and the social contract of Rousseau, no less than Kant's autonomism, which regards religion as an appendage of morality. Now the religious idea and the moral and juridic law being inseparably conjoined, and neither having actual existence save in Christianity which is concrete in the Catholic Church, civil society (the State), and religious society (the Church),should co-operate. Baader apparently until towards the close of his life held that the Church should have direct — not simply indirect — authority even in civil affairs, and he was enthusiastic for a reinstatement, ina form adapted to his times, of the medieval relation between the two orders. But a change seems to have come over his mind — occasioned very probably by some personal irritation which he felt at the criticism to which his theological teachings were subjected — and he taught for a short time opinions concerning the constitution of the Church and the Papacy which were utterly irreconcilable with Catholic Faith, while the language in which these opinions was conveyed was as unbecoming the philosopher as itwas his subject. Before his death, however, he retracted this portion of his teaching.

While Baader's sociology maintains that religion is the very root and life of civil society, it takes account also of political and economicadministration. Thus it contains his opinions favouring the organization of the classes, the revival of the medieval "corporations" or industrial associations, the political representation of the proletariat, and some well-reasoned objections to unlimited industrial competition and free trade. On the whole, his sociology is the wisest, strongest, sanest, and most practical part of his whole system, just as his technical theology is the weakest, the most bizarre, unsound, and impractical. The reason of the difference may not improbably be found in the fact that in the former the best elements of his own mind and character were free to assert themselves, while in his theology they seem almost throughout to be under the spell of Böhme whose fanciful mysticism bore him away to aregion as far removed from experience — present and past — as from the world of reason and faith. Apart from theology Baader's teachings have a permanent value.

Sämtliche Werke (Leipzig, 1851-60), XV, contains biography, XVI, an able sketch of the whole system by LUTTERBECK; HOFFMAN, Vorhalle zur spekulativen Lehre Baaders; Philosophische Schriften, 3 vols.; HAMBERGER, Cardinalpunkte der Baaderschen Philosophie; LUTTERBECK, Philosophische Standpunkte Baaders. See also Stö, Geschichte der modernen Philos., Vol. II; BLANC, Histoire de la philosophie, vol III; ERDMANN, History of Philosophy (tr.), II; HAFFNER in Kirchenlexicon, I, s.v.; SCHMIDT in BACHEM, Staatslexicon, s.v.

References

  1. Back to citation Friesen, J. G. (2016). Sophia, Androgyny and the Feminine in Franz von Baader’s Christian Theosophy. Religions, 2016(1), 14. https://www.qscience.com/content/journals/10.5339/rels.2016.women.14
  2. Back to citation Josephson-Storm, Jason (2017). The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-226-40336-6.
  3. Back to citation Abashnik 2010.
  4. Back to citation occurrence 4.0 Back to citation occurrence 4.1 Back to citation occurrence 4.2 Back to citation occurrence 4.3 Adamson 1878, p. 173.
  5. Back to citation His first name is spelled "Josef" in some records.
  6. Back to citation Hoffman 1857, pp. 1–3; Grassl 1953, pp. 474; In some records her middle name is spelled "Rosalie." Also, in some records her last name is spelled "von Schöpff". She was a daughter of Johann Adam von Schöpf (1702 – 10 January 1772).
  7. Back to citation Hoffman 1857, p. 3.
  8. Back to citation In some records, Clemens's middle name is spelled "Aloys" or "Aloysius".
  9. Back to citation Hoffman 1857, pp. 4–5.
  10. Back to citation On Baader's influence on and friendship with Schelling and the reasons for their eventual break with one another, see Zovko. Zovko 1996, pp. 86–139, 191–269, 270–312.
  11. Back to citation Adamson 1878, pp. 173–174.
  12. Back to citation occurrence 12.00 Back to citation occurrence 12.01 Back to citation occurrence 12.02 Back to citation occurrence 12.03 Back to citation occurrence 12.04 Back to citation occurrence 12.05 Back to citation occurrence 12.06 Back to citation occurrence 12.07 Back to citation occurrence 12.08 Back to citation occurrence 12.09 Back to citation occurrence 12.10 Back to citation occurrence 12.11 Back to citation occurrence 12.12 Back to citation occurrence 12.13 Back to citation occurrence 12.14 Back to citation occurrence 12.15 Back to citation occurrence 12.16 Back to citation occurrence 12.17 Back to citation occurrence 12.18 Back to citation occurrence 12.19 Back to citation occurrence 12.20 Back to citation occurrence 12.21 Back to citation occurrence 12.22 Back to citation occurrence 12.23 Back to citation occurrence 12.24 Adamson 1878, p. 174.
  13. Back to citation Historische Commission bei der königl. Akademie der Wissenschaften (1883), "Linder, Emilie", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Bd. 18, Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (1. ed.), München/Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot, p. 697, retrieved 2 April 2021
  14. Back to citation Zeller, Eduard, Ges. d. deut. Phil. (in German), pp. 732, 736
  15. Back to citation occurrence 15.0 Back to citation occurrence 15.1 Giles 1911, p. 88.
  16. Back to citation In Latin: cogitor ergo cogito et sum. ("I am thought of, therefore I think and am.") Giles 1911, p. 88. See also Descartes's cogito ergo sum.
  17. Back to citation Adamson 1878, pp. 174–175.
  18. Back to citation occurrence 18.0 Back to citation occurrence 18.1 Back to citation occurrence 18.2 Back to citation occurrence 18.3 Back to citation occurrence 18.4 Back to citation occurrence 18.5 Back to citation occurrence 18.6 Adamson 1878, p. 175.
  19. Back to citation Dynes 1990, p. 57.
  20. Back to citation occurrence 20.0 Back to citation occurrence 20.1 Hoffman 1851–1860.

Bibliography

Attribution

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