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Robert Guiscard

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Robert Guiscard
Coin of Robert Guiscard bearing his portrait
Coin of Robert Guiscard bearing his portrait
Duke of Apulia and Calabria
Reign 23 August 1059 – 17 July 1085
Predecessor Title created
Successor Roger Borsa
Count of Apulia and Calabria
Reign August 1057 – 23 August 1059
Predecessor Humphrey of Hauteville
Lord of Sicily
Reign Invested on 23 August 1059
Successor Roger I (as Count)
Prince of Benevento
Reign 1078 - 1081
Predecessor Landulf VI
Successor Title extinct
Born c. 1015
Hauteville-la-Guichard or somewhere else in Cotentin, Duchy of Normandy
Died 17 July 1085 (aged 69–70)
Cephalonia, Byzantine Empire
Burial Abbey of the Santissima Trinità, Venosa
Spouses Alberada of Buonalbergo
Sikelgaita
Issue See below
Noble family Hauteville
Father Tancred of Hauteville
Mother Fressenda
Religion Catholic

Robert Guiscard (/ɡiːˈskɑːr/ ghee-SKAR,[1] Modern French: [ʁɔbɛʁ ɡiskaʁ]; c. 1015 – 17 July 1085), also referred to as Robert de Hauteville, was a Norman adventurer remembered for his conquest of southern Italy and Sicily in the 11th century.[2]

Robert was born into the Hauteville family in Normandy, the sixth son of Tancred de Hauteville and his wife Fressenda. He inherited the County of Apulia and Calabria from his brother in 1057, and in 1059 he was made Duke of Apulia and Calabria and Lord of Sicily by Pope Nicholas II. He was also briefly Prince of Benevento (1078–1081), before returning the title to the papacy.[2]

Name

Robert's sobriquet, "Guiscard" (in contemporary Latin Viscardus and Old French Viscart, closely related to the English word "wiseacre", which archaically meant 'wise man'), is often rendered as "the Resourceful", "the Cunning", "the Wily", "the Fox", or "the Weasel". In Italian sources he is known as Roberto il Guiscardo or Roberto d'Altavilla (meaning Robert Guiscard and Robert de Hauteville), while medieval Arabic sources call him simply Abārt al-dūqa (Duke Robert).[2][3]

Historical background

From 999 to 1042, different Normans began migrating to Italy, where they mainly worked as mercenaries, serving at various times the Byzantines and a number of Lombard nobles.[4] The first of the independent Norman lords was Rainulf Drengot, who established himself in the fortress of Aversa, becoming Count of Aversa and Duke of Gaeta.[5]

In 1038, William Iron Arm and Drogo, the eldest sons of Tancred of Hauteville (Seigneur of Hauteville-La-Guichard, a town in Cotentin, Normandy),[6] and elder brothers of Robert Guiscard, arrived in Italy. The two joined a revolt against the Byzantine rule of Apulia, started by the Lombards. By 1040 the Byzantines had lost most of the province. In 1042 a group of Normans settled in Apulia and chose Melfi as their capital; in September of the same year they elected William Iron Arm as their count, who was succeeded in turn by his brothers Drogo, comes Normannorum totius Apuliæ e Calabriæ ("the count of all Normans in Apulia and Calabria"), and after him Humphrey, who arrived around 1044.[2]

Arrival in Italy

Robert Guiscard was born around 1015, a son of Tancred of Hauteville and his second wife Fressenda,[7] and the sixth of Tancred's twelve sons. According to the Byzantine historian Anna Komnene, he left Normandy to follow his brothers' footsteps with only five mounted riders and thirty followers on foot. Upon arriving in southern Italy in 1047, he became the chief of a roving band of robbers.[8][2] Anna Komnene gives us a physical description of Guiscard:[9]

This Robert was Norman by birth,[10] of obscure origins, with an overbearing character and a thoroughly villainous mind;[11] he was a brave fighter, very cunning in his assaults on the wealth and power of great men;[12] in achieving his aims absolutely inexorable, diverting criticism by incontrovertible argument. He was a man of immense stature, surpassing even the biggest men; he had a ruddy complexion, fair hair, broad shoulders, eyes that all but shot out sparks of fire. In a well-built man one looks for breadth here and slimness there; in him all was admirably well-proportioned and elegant... Homer remarked of Achilles that when he shouted his hearers had the impression of a multitude in uproar, but Robert's bellow, so they say, put tens of thousands to flight.[8]

When Robert arrived in Apulia, lands were scarce, and thus he couldn't expect any land grant from his brother Drogo, then count (especially since Drogo had already given Humphrey the county of Lavello). In 1048, Guiscard joined Pandulf IV of Capua in a war against Guaimar IV of Salerno. The next year, however, he left the war. Chronicler Amatus of Montecassino says this was due to Pandulf denying a previous promise that he had made to Robert, which included the gift of a castle and his daughter's hand in marriage. Robert therefore returned to Drogo's court, and he asked his brother to grant him a fief. Drogo, who had just finished a military campaign in Calabria, granted him command of the fortress of Scribla, but Guiscard, dissatisfied, transferred to the castle of San Marco Argentano. During his time in Calabria, Robert married Alberada of Buonalbergo, under the promise of her nephew Girard of Buonalbergo that he would join Robert with his 200 knights if the marriage took place.[2]

As the Normans gained more and more power in southern Italy, the Lombards, of whom they had been allies for a long time, turned against him. Pope Leo IX formed an anti-Norman coalition in an effort to expel them from the peninsula, but in 1053 he was defeated in the Battle of Civitate by the Norman forces, led by Humphrey, now count. Robert fought personally in the battle, and according to William of Apulia he was dismounted from his horse on three occasions, but he remounted every time.[2]

Rule

Accession to the throne and treaty of Melfi

When Humphrey died in 1057, Guiscard succeeded him as Count of Apulia and Calabria, skipping over his elder half-brother Geoffrey in the line of succession. Soon after, probably in 1058, Guiscard's marriage to Alberada was annulled due to consanguinity. It was the first time that a marriage was annulled for this cause. After that, Robert married Sikelgaita, sister of Gisulf II of Salerno, securing a new alliance between Lombards and Normans. In return for his sister's hand in marriage, Gisulf demanded that Guiscard destroyed two castles which belonged to his brother William, because they stood on Gisulf's territory.

The Papacy, in a conflict with the Holy Roman Emperor due to the Investiture Controversy, now opted to secure the Normans as allies. Therefore, in the Treaty of Melfi of 1059, Guiscard swore fealty to Pope Nicholas II. In return, Nicholas invested Guiscard of the titles of Duke of Apulia and Calabria and Lord of Sicily (by the Grace of God and St Peter duke of Apulia and Calabria and, if either aid me, future lord of Sicily), legitimizing his intervention against the Sicilian emirates, of Muslim faith.[2][13]

Campaigns in Calabria

After the treaty of Melfi, Robert engaged in a large series of conquests in southern Italy, mainly in Calabria and Sicily, with the help of his younger brother Roger I. At the time of treaty, Guiscard was already leading an army in Calabria, in an attempt to fully subjugate the province, still partially held by the Byzantines. After being invested of his titles, Guiscard returned to Calabria, where his army was besieging Cariati. Upon his arrival Cariati submitted, and, before winter, Rossano and Gerace followed. He briefly returned to Apulia to remove the Byzantine garrisons from Taranto and Brindisi, before returning once again in Calabria, where after a long and arduous siege, he conquered Reggio. Finally, he took Scilla, an island to which the Reggian garrison had fled. The complete control over Calabria opened the way to his planned conquest of Sicily.

Conquest of Sicily

Robert's brother, Roger, had initially led a tiny force to attack Messina, but he was easily repulsed by the Saracen garrison. After that, Guiscard was once again forced to return to Apulia, under the threat of Byzantine emperor Constantine X's army, which in January 1061 had begun besieging Melfi itself. The full weight of Guiscard's army forced the Byzantines to retreat, and by May Apulia was free again.

Robert and Roger returned to Sicily, where in 1061 they took Messina by surprise with comparable ease. After fortifying the city, Guiscard allied himself with the emir of Syracuse, Ibn al-Timnah, against the emir of Castrogiovanni, Ibn al-Hawwas. The forces of Robert, Roger and their Muslim ally marched into central Sicily through Rometta, conquering Paternò. They then tried to besiege Castrogiovanni, failing to conquer the fort. In 1063 Robert left for Apulia to spend Christmas with Sikelgaita, leaving behind the fort of San Marco d'Alunzio (which he had named after San Marco Argentano, his castle in Calabria). In 1064 he returned to Sicily, bypassing Castrogiovanni and going straight for Palermo. His campsite was however infested with tarantulas, and the expedition was abandoned.[14]

In 1071, the Norman County of Sicily was created and given to Roger. A year later Palermo finally fell, and the rest of Sicily was gradually conquered. A last resistance was held by Benavert, emir of Syracuse, but he was ultimately defeated in 1086. The last Muslim holding in Sicily, Noto, fell in 1091. As a result of his Sicilian campaigns, Robert Guiscard is also referred to as "Black Shirt Robert" because throughout the campaign he wore elegant black clothing.[15]

Conquests of Bari, Salerno and Benevento

While the Conquest of Sicily was still in progress, Robert had to fight once again with the Byzantines. The Byzantine forces had occupied Bari, on request of Robert's nephew Abelard of Hauteville, who wanted to claim the throne for himself. Guiscard besieged the city by land and water for four years, until in 1071 the people decided to surrender; he would later repair the damages done by the siege. The Byzantines were finally chased off the Italian peninsula, and Robert now focused his attention on the various Lombard independent realms in southern Italy.

Robert firstly attacked the Principality of Salerno, held by his brother in law Gisulf II. Salerno was besieged and fell in December 1076, and Gisulf abandoned his castle with his court in May 1077. Robert then took the principality of Benevento in 1078. Pope Gregory VII was alarmed, as Benevento was considered possession of the papal state. Nevertheless, he decided not to enter a conflict with the Normans, as he was already busy with Emperor Henry IV due to the investiture controversy. Simon de Crépy negotiated an alliance with Guiscard on behalf of Gregory VII, and in June 1080 the Pope gave Guiscard claims on Abruzzi, Salerno, Amalfi, and on the March of Fermo. Robert would later return Benevento to the papacy in 1081.[16]

Against the Byzantines

In his last campaign, Guiscard attacked the Byzantine Empire itself, supporting the cause of Raiktor, a monk who claimed to be deposed emperor Michael VII. Even after it was clear that Raiktor was lying, Robert didn't stop, believing that he himself had the right to rule the Byzantine Empire since Constantine Doukas, son of the real Michael VII, had once been proposed to his daughter Olympias.[17]

In May 1081, Robert sailed with an army of Norman and Lombard troops (1,300 knights according to Geoffrey Malaterra, up to 10,000 troops according to Orderic Vitalis). In October 1081, he defeated Alexios I Komnenos in the Battle of Dyrrachium, and by 1082 he had occupied Corfu and Durazzo. In 1083, however, he was forced to return to Italy to help Pope Gregory VII, who was being besieged in Castel Sant'Angelo by Henry IV. In May 1084 Guiscard entered Rome, and forced Henry to retreat. A revolt of the citizens led to a three-day sack of the city, after which Robert escorted the Pope out of the city. Guiscard's son Bohemond, who had remained in the Balkans, had by this time lost his father's conquests. Robert returned to the Balkans and reoccupied Corfu and Cephalonia, with the help of Ragusa and other dalmatian cities under the rule of king Demetrius Zvonimir.[18]

Death

On 17 July 1085, Guiscard died of a fever in Cephalonia, at Atheras, north of Lixouri. His remains were brought back to Italy, and he was buried in the Hauteville family mausoleum, the Abbey of Santissima Trinità in Venosa.[19] The town of Fiskardo in Cephalonia is named after him. On his epigraph there are four Latin verses; the last one reads "Hic terror mundi Guiscardus", which is translated as: "Here (lies) Guiscard, terror of the world".[20]

Succession

Robert's oldest son, Bohemond, was declared illegitimate when Robert and Alberada's marriage was annulled due to consanguinity. Thus, he was succeeded as Duke of Apulia and Calabria by his eldest son by Sikelgaita, Roger Borsa. Bohemond was initially supposed to inherit Robert's conquests in the Balkans, but this didn't happen as they were soon re-conquered by the Byzantines. He instead got some land around the city of Taranto. Bohemond would later become one of the leaders of the first crusade and the first prince of Antioch. Guiscard's other sons, Guy and Robert Scalio, never claimed any title for themselves.

The descendants of Robert's brother, Roger I, Count of Sicily, would later create the Kingdom of Sicily.

Religion

Due to his conquest of Calabria and Sicily, Guiscard was instrumental in bringing Latin Christianity to an area that had historically followed the Byzantine rite. Guiscard laid the foundation of the Salerno Cathedral and of a Norman monastery at Sant'Eufemia Lamezia in Calabria. This latter monastery, famous for its choir, began as a community of eleven monks from Saint-Evroul in Normandy under the abbot Robert de Grantmesnil.

Although his relationship with the pope was rocky, Guiscard preferred to be on good terms with the papacy, and he made a gesture of abandoning his first wife in response to church law. While the popes were often fearful of his growing power, they preferred the strong and independent hand of a Catholic Norman to the rule of a Byzantine Greek. Guiscard received his investment with Sicily at the hands of Pope Nicholas II, who feared the opposition of the Holy Roman Emperor to the Papal reforms more. Guiscard supported the reforms, coming to the rescue of a besieged Pope Gregory VII, who had once excommunicated him for encroaching on the territory of the Papal States. After the Great Schism of 1054, the polarized religious atmosphere served to strengthen Guiscard's alliance with papal forces, resulting in a formidable papal-Norman opposition to the Eastern Empire.[21]

Marriage and issue

Guiscard's first wife was Alberada of Buonalbergo, whom he married in 1051.[7] They had two children:

  • Bohemond I, prince of Antioch.[7]
  • Emma, married Odo the Good Marquis[22][7]

Guiscard and Alberada's marriage was later annulled, and in 1058 or 1059 he remarried to Sichelgaita.[7] They had ten children:

  • Matilda, married to Count Ramon Berenguer II of Barcelona.[23]
  • Roger Borsa, Duke of Apulia and Calabria.[24]
  • Mabel, married to William de Grandmesnil.[24]
  • A daughter (maybe named Héria), married to Count Hugh V of Maine.[25]
  • Robert Scalio[24]
  • Guy[24]
  • Sibylla, married to Count Ebles II of Roucy.[7]
  • Olympias (renamed Helena), betrothed to Constantine Doukas.[24]
  • Cecile
  • Gaitelgrima, married to Humphrey, Count of Sarno.

Depictions

In the Divine Comedy, Dante sees Guiscard's spirit in the Heaven of Mars, along with other "warriors of the faith" who exemplify the cardinal virtue of fortitude. In the Inferno, Dante describes Guiscard's enemies as a field of mutilated shades stretching out to the horizon.[26]

Guiscard was the protagonist of Kleist's verse drama Robert Guiskard, incomplete at the author's death (1811).[27]

In Crusader Kings III, Robert Guiscard, portrayed as the Duke of Apulia, is a recommended starting character. He starts with his own epithet, Robert "the Fox".[28]

From the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia

Duke of Apulia and Calabria, founder of the Norman state of the Two Sicilies; born about 1016; died 17 July, 1085. He was the eldest son of the second marriage of Tancred, seigneur of Haute-ville-la-Guichard near Coutances, Normandy, a fief of ten chevaliers. Already three of his brothers, William Bras-de-Fer and Drogo, about 1034, and Humphrey, about 1045, had entered the pay of the Lombard princes of Southern Italy who were in revolt against the Byzantine Empire. In turn Robert left Normandy accompanied by five horsemen and thirty foot-soldiers, and set out to rejoin his brothers in 1046. Of gigantic stature, broad-shouldered, with blond hair, ruddy complexion, and deep voice, he owed to his crafty shrewdness the soubriquet of "Guiscard" (Wiseacre). He encountered difficulties on his first entrance into Italy. His brother Drogo, who had been elected Count of the Normans, repulsed him. Having wandered about for a time he returned to enter the service of Drogo and assisted him to conquer Calabria. He established himself at the head of a small troop on the heights of San Marco, which dominated the valley of the Crati, whence he practised actual brigandage, surprising the Byzantine posts, pillaging monasteries, and robbing travellers. But subsequent to his marriage with Aubrée, a kinswoman of a Norman chief of the territory of Benevento, he renounced this manner of life and had two hundred horsemen under his command. Drogo having been assassinated in 1051, his brother Humphrey succeeded to his possessions and the title of Count of the Normans, and Guiscard remained in his service. In 1053, he took part in the battle of Civitella, in which Pope Leo IX was vanquished and taken prisoner by the Normans. In 1055, he took possession of Otranto. On the death of Humphrey in 1057, Robert Guiscard caused himself to be elected leader of the Normans to the detriment of the two sons of his brother, whose inheritance he appropriated. At this juncture the Normans aimed openly at taking possession of southern Italy. Richard of Aversa, who had just taken Capua, was after Guiscard the most powerful leader. Through energy of character and skilful policy, Robert Guiscard succeeded in inducing the Norman chiefs to submit to his authority and in accomplishing with them the conquest of Italy. He established his young brother Roger in Calabria in 1058. In 1059, Hildebrand, the chief councillor of Pope Nicholas II, desiring to shield the papacy from the attacks of the adversaries of ecclesiastical reform, entered into an alliance with the Normans. At the Council of Melfi (August, 1059), Guiscard declared himself the vassal of the Holy See, pledged himself to bring about the observance of the decrees of the Council of Lateran with regard to the election of popes, and received in exchange the title of Duke with the investiture of his conquests in Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. He at once began to make war on the remaining Byzantine possessions, took possession of Reggio (1060), despatched his brother Roger to begin the conquest of Sicily, took Brindisi (1002), and finally, in 1068, laid siege to Bari, the capital of Byzantine Italy, which he entered after a siege of three years on 16 April, 1071. In the following year, the capture of Palermo, besieged at once by Robert and Roger, left the Normans masters of all Sicily. Roger retained the greater part of the country, but remained his brother's vassal.

These conquests would have been but of ephemeral duration had Guiscard not devoted all his energy to consolidating them. The Norman chiefs who had become his vassals were not too readily disposed to submit to his authority, and revolted while he was in Sicily. In 1073 Guiscard besieged and reduced to submission all the rebels in succession. The great commercial republic of Amalfi yielded voluntarily to him. At this juncture, however, Gregory VII, alarmed by Guiscard's aggressions on the papal territories excommunicated him. At the same time, Guiscard having wished on the occasion of his daughter's marriage to raise the usual feudal aid, his vassals once more revolted (1078). Having put down this revolt, Guiscard was once again all-powerful, and Gregory VII, threatened by the intrigues of Emperor Henry IV, became reconciled to him (1080). In the interval Salerno had fallen under his sway, and, save for the Norman principality of Capua, which remained independent, and the city of Naples, all southern Italy obeyed him.

Having now reached the height of his power, Guiscard conceived the ambition, at the age of sixty-four, to undertake the conquest of the Byzantine empire, whose civilization exercised over him a powerful attraction. As the master of Byzantine Italy, he considered himself the heir of the emperors, caused himself to be depicted on his seal in their costume, and thus inaugurated a tradition which nearly all sovereigns of the Two Sicilies down to Charles of Anjou sought to follow. In May, 1081, Robert and his son Bohemond set out for Otranto, captured the island of Corfu, and disembarked before Durazzo, the possession of which would assure them access to the Via Egnatia, which led through Macedonia to Constantinople. But the emperor Alexius Comnenus had formed an alliance with Venice, whose fleet won a great victory over that of the Normans (July). Alexius came himself to the assistance of Durazzo, but Guiscard, who had burnt his ships in order to inspire courage in his troops, put the imperial army to flight (18 October). Despite this victory, the Normans, being still incapable of laying siege in the regular manner, could not have entered into the place, if Guiscard had not contrived that it should be delivered to him by treason (21 February, 1082). Guiscard was now master of the route to Constantinople, and had advanced as far as Castoria when he received a letter from Gregory VII recalling him to Italy. Henry IV, with whom Alexius Comnenus had formed an alliance, had come down into Italy and was threatening Rome. At his approach the Lombard vassals of Apulia and the Prince of Capua had revolted. Guiscard resigned the command of his expedition to his son Bohemond, who abandoned the march on Constantinople to ravage Thessaly. Guiscard returned to Italy and profited by Henry IV's short delay in Lombardy to subdue his rebellious vassals, capturing their cities one by one (1083). During this time Henry IV returned and laid siege to Rome. On 2 June, 1083, he took possession of the Leonine City, and compelled Gregory VII to seek refuge in the castle of Sant' Angelo. The emperor made his entry into Rome on 21 March, 1084, and, on the following 31 March, he was crowned at St. Peter's by the antipope Clement III. Gregory VII, who all the time was confined to the castle of Sant' Angelo, sent a message to Robert Guiscard. On 24 May, 30,000 Normans camped beneath the walls of Rome. On the 27 May, Guiscard captured the Porta Flaminia, gave battle on the Campo Mania, delivered Gregory VII and installed him in the Lateran while the imperial troops beat a retreat. But the Romans, exasperated by the pillaging of the Normans, revolted. The city was sacked, and the inhabitants massacred or sold as slaves. On the 28 June, Guiscard left Rome and conducted Gregory VII as far as Salerno. Thanks to his intervention the projects of Henry IV had been baffled and the cause of ecclesiastical reform had triumphed.

But Robert Guiscard thought only of resuming his expedition against Constantinople. Beaten by the troops of Alexius Comnenus, Bohemond had been compelled to retire with his army to Italy (1083). Guiscard made fresh preparations, and, at the end of 1084, embarked at Otranto. After having defeated the Venetian fleet, he recovered Corfu and was preparing to capture Cephalonia, where he had just disembarked, when he died after a short illness, 17 July, 1085. Having come into Italy forty years previously as a mere soldier of fortune, he had since founded a sovereign state and become one of the most important personages of Christendom. Two emperors had had to reckon with him. From one of them he had taken Rome, from the other he had been on the point of taking Constantinople. In 1058, he had repudiated Aubrée, the mother of Bohemond, to wed the Lombard Sykelgaite, sister of Gisulf, Prince of Salerno. She gave him three Sons and seven daughters, and appears to have been actively associated in all his undertakings, accompanying him in his expeditions and exercising so much influence over him as to cause him to designate as his successor his son Roger, to the detriment of Bohemond.

Gesta Roberti Wiscardi (Epic in 5 cantos by WILLIAM OF APULIA, composed at the request of Urban II and dedicated to Duke Roger), ed. WILMANS, Mon. Germ. Hist.: Scriptores, IX, 241 sqq.; AMATUS OF MONTE CASINO, Ystoire de li Normant (ed. SOCIÉTÉ DE L'HIST. DE FRANCE, Paris, 1835. Fr. tr. of fourteenth century from orig.); LEO OSTIENSIS (MARSICANUS), Chronica Monasterii Casinensis, ed. WATTENBACH, in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., VII, 574 sq.; LUPUS PROTOSPATHARIUS, Annales, 805-1102, ed. in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script, V, 52 sq.; GEOFFREY MALATERRA, Historia Sicula (to 1099), ed. MURATORI, Rerum italic. Scriptor., V. 574 sqq.; ANNA COMNENA, Alexiade, ed. REIFFERSCHEID (Leipzig, 1884), I-VI; Cecaumeni Strategicon, ed. WASILIEWSKY (St. Petersburg, 1886), 35; GREGORY VII, Registrum epistolarum, ed. JAFFÉ, Bibliotheca rer. germanic., II; CHALANDON, La Diplomatique des Normands de Sicile et de l'Italie méridionaie (Mélanges d'Archéologie et d'Histoire de l'école française de Rome, 1900); HEINEMANN, Normanische Herzogs- und Königsurkunden (Tübingen, 1899); ENGEL, Recherches sur la numismatique et la sigillographie des Normands d'Italie (Paris, 1882); GAY, L'Italie méridionale et l'empire byzantin (Paris, 1904); CHALANDON, Histoire de La domination normande en Italie (Paris, 1907), I, containing excellent bibliography; IDEM, Essai sur le règne d'Alexis I Comnène (Paris, 1900); HEINEMANN, Geschichte der Normannem im Unteritalien und Sicilien (Leipsic, 1894), I; DENTZER, Topographie der Feldzüge Robert Guiscards gegen das byzantinische Reich (Breslau, 1901).

References

  1. Back to citation "Robert Guiscard". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. OCLC 1032680871. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  2. Back to citation occurrence 2.0 Back to citation occurrence 2.1 Back to citation occurrence 2.2 Back to citation occurrence 2.3 Back to citation occurrence 2.4 Back to citation occurrence 2.5 Back to citation occurrence 2.6 Back to citation occurrence 2.7 "Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  3. Back to citation Johns 2015, p. 124.
  4. Back to citation The Normans in Europe, Ed. & Trans. Elisabeth van Houts (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 223
  5. Back to citation Jim Bradbury, The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare (London & New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 153
  6. Back to citation Oscar Browning, A General History of the World (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 316
  7. Back to citation occurrence 7.0 Back to citation occurrence 7.1 Back to citation occurrence 7.2 Back to citation occurrence 7.3 Back to citation occurrence 7.4 Back to citation occurrence 7.5 Lock 2006, p. 486.
  8. Back to citation occurrence 8.0 Back to citation occurrence 8.1 The Alexiad of Anna Comnena, Trans. (from the Greek) E.R.A. Sewter (London & New York: Penguin Books, 1969), p. 54 ISBN 0-14-044215-4
  9. Back to citation However, one should not trust this description, as the Byzantine princess was born in 1083 and Robert died in 1085. It is possible that Anna was inspired by a Norman mercenary or by Bohemond, son of Robert)
  10. Back to citation "Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  11. Back to citation "Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  12. Back to citation "Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)". www.thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 28 January 2021.
  13. Back to citation The Normans in Europe, Ed. & Trans. Elisabeth van Houts (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 236–237
  14. Back to citation Rogers 2010, p. 66.
  15. Back to citation D'Alessandro, Vincenzo (2008). "Les chevaliers de Dieu" [The Knights of God]. Annales de Normandie (in French). 58 (1): 59–66. doi:10.3406/annor.2008.6194. INIST 20623842.
  16. Back to citation Forbes 1879, p. 413.
  17. Back to citation The Alexiad, Book 1, Chapter 12
  18. Back to citation Loud, pp. 214-217; Forbes 1879, p. 413; Ferdo Šišić, Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara, 1925, Zagreb ISBN 86-401-0080-2
  19. Back to citation Gordon S. Brown, The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily (Jefferson, NC; McFarland 2003), p. 181.
  20. Back to citation James van Wyck Osborne, The Greatest Norman Conquest (1937), p. 396; Loud, p. 223; Jeanne, G.-R. (1986). "L'évocation romantique d'un héros normand". Études Normandes. 35 (4): 19–30. doi:10.3406/etnor.1986.2694; Aubé, Pierre (2016). Roger II de Sicile: un Normand en Méditerranée. Collection Tempus. Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-06396-2; Stroock, William (2011). "How to fight and win like a Norman: Strategy and tactics of the Norman". Medieval Warfare. 1 (4): 13–15. ISSN 2211-5129. JSTOR 48577881; Taviani-Carozzi, Huguette (1996). La terreur du monde: Robert Guiscard et la conquête normande en Italie; mythe et histoire. Paris: Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-59598-6.
  21. Back to citation Alexēs Geōrgiu K Sabbidēs, Byzantino-Normannica: The Norman Capture of Italy (to A.D. 1081) and the First Two Invasions in Byzantium (A.D. 1081–1085 and 1107–1108) (Leuven, Belgium; Dudley, Massachusetts: Peeters, 2007) ISBN 978-90-429-1911-2
  22. Back to citation Lock indicates Emma as a daughter of Sigelgaita. Lock 2006, p. 486.
  23. Back to citation Heygate 2016, p. 178.
  24. Back to citation occurrence 24.0 Back to citation occurrence 24.1 Back to citation occurrence 24.2 Back to citation occurrence 24.3 Back to citation occurrence 24.4 Loud 2000, p. 300.
  25. Back to citation Barton states that a "daughter" of Robert Guiscard married Hugh V of Maine. Barton 2004, p. xiii.
  26. Back to citation Edward Moore, Studies in Dante: Scripture and classical authors in Dante (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1899), p. 274
  27. Back to citation Olive Classe, Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English, Volume 1 (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000), p. 767
  28. Back to citation Crusader Kings III - Legends of Crusader Kings III: Duke Robert

Bibliography

  • Von Kleist, Heinrich Robert Guiskard, Herzog der Normänner, student edition (Stuttgart, 2011).
  • Chalandon, F. Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicile. (Paris, 1907).
  • Von Heinemann, L. Geschichte der Normannen in Unteritalien (Leipzig, 1894).
  • Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016–1130. Longmans: London, 1967.
  • Chaplin, Danny. "Strenuitas: The Life and Times of Robert Guiscard and Bohemond of Taranto. Norman Power from the Mezzogiorno to Antioch, 1016–1111 AD" (Singapore, 2015).
  • Forbes, Charles (1879). The Monks of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard: Vol. 6. London: William Blackwood and Sons.
  • Rogers, Clifford J. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195334036.
  • Lock, Peter (2006). The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge.
  • Loud, Graham A. (2000). The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest. Routledge.
  • Heygate, Catherine (2016). "Marriage strategies among the Normans of Southern Italy in the Eleventh Century". In Stringer, Keith J; Jotischky, Andrew (eds.). Norman Expansion: Connections, Continuities and Contrasts. Routledge. pp. 165–186.
  • Barton, Richard Ewing (2004). Lordship in the County of Maine, C. 890–1160. The Boydell Press.
  • Johns, Jeremy (2015). "Arabic Inscriptions in the Capella Palatina: Performativity, Audience, Legibility and Illegibility". In Eastmond, Antony (ed.). Viewing Inscriptions in the Late Antique and Medieval World. Cambridge University Press.
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