Guido of Arezzo

Guido depicted in a medieval manuscript

Guido of Arezzo (Italian: Guido d'Arezzo; c. 991–992 – after 1033) was an Italian music theorist and pedagogue of High medieval music. A monk from the Order of Saint Benedict, he is regarded as the inventor—or by some, developer—of the modern staff notation that had a massive influence on the development of Western musical notation and practice. Perhaps the most significant European writer on music between Boethius and Johannes Tinctoris, Guido wrote the Micrologus, the most widely distributed medieval treatise on music, after Boethius's De institutione musica.

Biographical information on Guido is only available from two contemporary documents; though they give limited background, a basic understanding of his life can be unravelled. By around 1013 he began teaching at Pomposa Abbey, but his antiphonary Prologus in antiphonarium and novel teaching methods based on staff notation brought considerable resentment from his colleagues. He thus moved to Arezzo in 1025 and under the patronage of Bishop Tedald of Arezzo he taught singers at the Arezzo Cathedral. Using staff notation, he was able to teach large amounts of music quickly, and he wrote the multifaceted Micrologus, attracting attention from around Italy. Interested in his innovations, Pope John XIX called him to Rome. After arriving and beginning to explain his methods to the clergy, sickness sent him away in the summer. The rest of his life is largely unknown, but he settled in a monastery near Arezzo, probably one of the Avellana of the Camaldolese order.

Context and sources

Information on Guido's life is scarce; Charles Burney, a music historian, asserted that the paucity of records was because Guido was a monk. Burney furthered that, in the words of musicologist Samuel D. Miller, "Guido's modesty, selfless abandon from material gain life, and obedience to authority tended to obscure his moves, work, and motivations". The scholarly outline of Guido's life has been subject to much mythologization and misunderstandings. These dubious claims include that he spent much of life in France (recorded as early as Johannes Trithemius's 1494 De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis); that he trained in the Saint-Maur-des-Fossés near Paris; and unsupported rumours that he was imprisoned because of plots from those hostile to his innovations.

The primary surviving documents associated with Guido are two undated letters; a dedicatory letter to Bishop Tedald of Arezzo and a letter to his colleague Michael of Pomposa, known as the Epistola ad Michaelem. These letters provide enough information and context to map the main events and chronology of Guido's life, though Miller notes that they do "not permit a detailed, authoritative sketch".

Life and career

Early life

Guido was born sometime between 990 and 999. This birthdate range was conjectured from a now lost and undated manuscript of the Micrologus, where he stated that he was age 34 while John XIX was pope (1024–1033). Swiss musicologist Hans Oesch's dating of the manuscript to 1025–1026 is agreed by scholars Claude V. Palisca, Dolores Pesce and Angelo Mafucci, with Mafucci noting that it is "now unanimously accepted". This would suggest a birthdate of c. 991–992.

Guido's birthplace is even less certain, and has been the subject of much disagreement between scholars, with music historian Cesarino Ruini noting that due to Guido's pivotal significance "It is understandable that several locations in Italy claim the honor of having given birth to G[uido]". There are two principal candidates: Arezzo, Tuscany or the Pomposa Abbey on the Adriatic coast near Ferrara. Musicologist Jos. Smits van Waesberghe asserted that he was born in Pomposa due to his strong connection with the Abbey from c. 1013–1025; according to Van Waesberghe, Guido's epitaph 'of Arezzo' is because of his stay of about a dozen years there later in life. Disagreeing with Van Waesberghe's conclusions, Mafucci argued that were Guido born in Pomposa, he would have spent nearly 35 years there and would thus more likely be known as 'of Pomposa'. Mafucci cites the account of the near-contemporary historian Sigebert of Gembloux (c. 1030–1112) who referred to Guido as "Guido Aretinus" (Guido of Arezzo), suggesting that the early use of such a designation means Guido's birthplace was Arezzo. Citing recently unearthed documents in 2003, Mafucci identified Guido with a Guido clerico filius Roze of the Arezzo Cathedral. If Mafucci is correct, Guido would have received early musical education at the Arezzo Cathedral from a deacon named Sigizo and was ordained as a subdeacon and active as a cantor.

Pomposa

"Guido [...] perhaps attracted by the fame of what was considered one of the most famous Benedictine abbeys, full of hope of new spiritual and musical life, he enters the monastery of Pomposa, unaware of the storm that, in a few years, it would hit him. In fact [...] it will be his own brothers and the abbot himself who will force him to leave Pomposa."

— Angelo Mafucci, trans. from Italian

Around 1013 Guido went to the Pomposa Abbey, one of the most famous Benedictine monasteries of the time, to complete his education. Becoming a noted monk, he started to develop the novel principles of staff notation (music being written and read from an organized visual system).

Likely drawing from the writings of Odo of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, Guido began to draft his system in the antiphonary Regulae rhythmicae, which he probably worked on with his colleague Michael of Pomposa. In the prologue to the antiphonary, Guido expressed his frustration with the large amount of time singers spent to memorize music. The system, he explained, would prevent the need for memorization and thus permit the singers extra time to diversify their studies into other prayers and religious texts. He began to instruct his singers along these lines and obtained a reputation for being able to teach substantial amounts of music quickly. Though his ideas brought interest from around Italy, they inspired considerable jealousy and resistance from his fellow monks, who felt threatened by his innovations. Among those disapproving was Guido of Pomposa., an Abbot. In light of these objections, Guido left Pomposa in around 1025 and moved to—or 'returned to', if following the Arezzo birthplace hypothesis—Arezzo.

Arezzo, Rome and later life

Arezzo was without a monastery; Bishop Tedald of Arezzo (Bishop from 1023 to 1036) appointed Guido to oversee the training of singers for the Arezzo Cathedral. It was at this time that Guido began work on the Micrologus, or in full Micrologus de disciplina artis musicae. The work was both commissioned by and dedicated to Tedald. It was primarily a musical manual for singers and discussed a wide variety of topics, including chant, polyphonic music, the monochord, melody, syllables, modes, organum, neumes and many of his teaching methods. Resuming the same teaching approach as before, Guido lessened the standard 10-year training for the ideal cantor to only one or two years. Italy-wide attention returned to Guido, and Pope John XIX called him to Rome, having either seen or heard of both his Regulae rhythmicae and innovative staff notation teaching techniques. Theobald may have helped arrange the visit, and in around 1028, Guido traveled there with the Canon Dom Peter of Arezzo as well as the Abbot Grimaldus of Arezzo. His presentation incited much interest from the clergy and the details of his visit are included in the Epistola ad Michaelem.

While in Rome, Guido became sick and the hot summer forced him to leave, with the assurance that he would visit again and give further explanation of his theories. In the Epistola ad Michaelem, Guido mentions that before leaving, he was approached by the Abbot Guido of Pomposa who regretted his part in Guido's leave from Arezzo and thus invited him to return to the Abbey. Guido of Pomposa's rationale was that he should avoid the cities, as most of their churchmen were accused of simony, though it remains unknown if Guido chose the Pomposa Abbey as his destination. It seems more likely that around 1029, Guido settled in a monastery of the Avellana of the Camaldolese order near Arezzo, as many of the oldest manuscripts with Guidonian notation are Camaldolese. The last document pertaining to Guido places him in Arezzo on 20 May 1033; his death is only known to have been sometime after that date.

Music theory and innovations

Works

Works by Guido of Arezzo

• The Micrologus (c. 1025–1026)
• Regulae rhythmicae (after 1026)
• Prologus in antiphonarium (c. 1030)
• Epistola ad Michaelem (c. 1032)

Four works are securely attributed to Guido: the Micrologus, the Prologus in antiphonarium, the Regulae rhythmicae and the Epistola ad Michaelem.

The Epistola ad Michaelem is the only one not a formal musical treatise; it was written directly after Guido's trip to Rome, perhaps in 1028, but no later than 1033. All three musical treatises were written before the Epistola ad Michaelem, as Guido mentions each of them in it. More specifically, the Micrologus can be dated to after 1026, as in the preliminary dedicatory letter to Tebald, Guido congratulates him for his 1026 plans for the new St Donatus church. Though the Prologus in antiphonarium began in Pomposa (1013–1025), it seems to not have been completed until 1030.

Solmization

Guido developed new techniques for teaching, such as staff notation and the use of the "ut–re–mi–fa–sol–la" (do–re–mi–fa–so–la) mnemonic (solmization). The syllables ut-re-mi-fa-sol-la (do-re-mi-fa-sol-la) are taken from the six half-lines of the first stanza of the hymn "Ut queant laxis", the notes of which are successively raised by one step, and the text of which is attributed to the Italian monk and scholar Paulus Deacon (although the musical line either shares a common ancestor with the earlier setting of Horace's Ode to Phyllis (Odes 4.11) recorded in Montpellier manuscript H425, or may have been taken from there). Giovanni Battista Doni is known for having changed the name of note "Ut" (C), renaming it "Do" (in the "Do Re Mi..." sequence known as solfège). A seventh note, "Si" (from the initials for "Sancte Iohannes," Latin for Saint John the Baptist) was added shortly after to complete the diatonic scale. In anglophone countries, "Si" was changed to "Ti" by Sarah Glover in the nineteenth century so that every syllable might begin with a different letter (this also freed up Si for later use as Sol-sharp). "Ti" is used in tonic sol-fa and in the song "Do-Re-Mi".

The Guidonian hand

Guido is somewhat erroneously credited with the invention of the Guidonian hand, a widely used mnemonic system where note names are mapped to parts of the human hand. Only a rudimentary form of the Guidonian hand is actually described by Guido, and the fully elaborated system of natural, hard, and soft hexachords cannot be securely attributed to him.

In the 12th century, a development in teaching and learning music in a more efficient manner arose. Guido of Arezzo's alleged development of the Guidonian hand, more than a hundred years after his death, allowed musicians to label a specific joint or fingertip with the gamut (also referred to as the hexachord in the modern era). Using specific joints of the hand and fingertips transformed the way one would learn and memorize solmization syllables. Not only did the Guidonian hand become a standard use in preparing music in the 12th century, but its popularity also grew more widespread well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The knowledge and use of the Guidonian hand would allow a musician to simply transpose, identify intervals, and aid in the use of notation and the creation of new music. Musicians were able to sing and memorize longer sections of music and counterpoint during performances and the amount of time spent diminished dramatically.

Legacy

Almost immediately after his death, commentaries were written on Guido's work, particularly the Micrologus. One of the most noted is the De musica of Johannes Cotto (fl. c. 1100), whose influential treatise was largely a commentary that expanded and revised the Micrologus. Aribo (fl. c. 1068–78) also dedicated a substantial part of his De musica as a commentary on chapter 15 of the Micrologus. Other significant commentaries are anonymous, including the Liber argumentorum and Liber specierum (both Italian, 1050–1100); the Commentarius anonymus in Micrologum (Belgian or Bavarian, c. 1070–1100); and the Metrologus (English, 13th century).

Guido of Arezzo and his work are frequent namesakes. The controversial mass Missa Scala Aretina (1702) by Francisco Valls takes its name from Guido's hexachord. Lorenzo Nencini sculpted a statue of Guido in 1847 that is included in the Loggiato of the Uffizi, Florence. A statue to him was erected 1882 in his native Arezzo; it was sculpted by Salvino Salvini. Modern namesakes include the computer music notation system GUIDO music notation, as well as the "Concorso Polifónico Guido d'Arezzo" (International Guido d'Arezzo Polyphonic Contest) hosted by the Fondazione Guido D'Arezzo in Arezzo. A street in Milan, Via Guido D'Arezzo, is named after him.

In 1950, the Comitato Nazionale per le Onoranze a Guido Monaco (National Committee for Honors to Guido Monaco) held various events for the ninth centenary of Guido's death. Among these was a monograph competition; Jos Smits van Waesberghe won with the Latin work De musico-paedagogico et theoretico Guidone Aretino eiusque vita et moribus (The Musical-Pedagogy of Theoretician Guido of Arezzo Both His Life and Morals).

Editions

• Guido of Arezzo (1955). van Waesberghe, Jos Smits [in Dutch] (ed.). Micrologus. Corpus Scriptorum de Musica. Vol. 4. Rome: American Institute of Musicology. OCLC 1229808694.
• —— (1975). van Waesberghe, Jos Smits [in Dutch] (ed.). Prologus in antiphonarium. Divitiae Musicae Artis. Buren: Frits Knuf. OCLC 251805291.
• —— (1978). "Micrologus". In Palisca, Claude V. (ed.). Hucbald, Guido, and John on music: Three Medieval Treatises. Translated by Babb, Warren. Index of chants by Alejandro Enrique Planchart. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02040-3.
• —— (1985). van Waesberghe, Jos Smits [in Dutch]; Vetter, Eduard (eds.). Regulae rhythmicae. Divitiae Musicae Artis. Buren: Frits Knuf. OCLC 906533025.
• —— (1993). Micrologus (in French). Translated by Colette, Marie-Noël; Jolivet, Jean-Christophe. Paris: Édition IPMC. ISBN 978-2-906460-28-7. OCLC 935613218.
• —— (1999). Guido d'Arezzo's Regule rithmice, Prologus in antiphonarium, and Epistola ad michahelem: a critical text and translation, with an introduction, annotations, indices, and new manuscript inventories. Translated by Pesce, Dolores. Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music. ISBN 978-1-896926-18-6. OCLC 247329370.

From the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia

Guido of Arezzo — (Guido Aretinus).

A monk of the Order of St. Benedict, b. (according to Dom Morin in the "Revue de l'art Chretien", 1888, iii) near Paris c. 995; d. at Avellano, near Arezzo, 1050. He invented the system of staff-notation still in use, and rendered various other services to the progress of musical art and science. He was educated by and became a member of the Benedictine Order in the monastery of St. Maur des Fosses, near Paris. Early in his career Guido observed the confusion which prevailed in the teaching and performance of liturgical melodies generally, and especially in his immediate surroundings. His endeavours to improve these conditions by innovations in the current methods of teaching are fully described in his writings; these made him unpopular with his brethren in the order and led to his removals to the monastery of Pomposa near Ferrara, Italy. Here the same lot seems to have befallen him. Intrigues and calumnies caused him to ask for admission to the monastery of Arezzo. The exact date of his entrance into this community is uncertain, but it occurred during the incumbency of Theudald as Bishop of Arezzo (i.e., between 1033 and 1036), and while Grunwald was abbot of the monastery. It was during this period that Guido perfected the new system of notation which brought such order and clearness into the teaching of music. Guido seems by this time to have overcome all opposition to his new method, and to have removed all doubt as to its value among those who took cognizance of it and saw its application. His fame soon reached the reigning pope, John XIX (1024-1033), who sent three different messengers urging Guido to come to Rome and exhibit his antiphonary containing the liturgical melodies transcribed from the sign-notation heretofore in use into his own staff-notation. Pope John was overjoyed at the ease with which he was enabled to decipher and learn the melodies without the aid of a master, and invited Guido to take up his abode in Rome, to instruct the Roman clergy in the new system, and to introduce it into general practice in the Eternal City. Unfortunately the Roman climate made it impossible for Guido to accept the invitation of the supreme pontiff. He soon fell ill of Roman fever and had to leave the city. He now returned to the monastery of Pomposa. The abbot (also called Guido) and monks, who had caused him so much chagrin by their opposition to his innovations, now received him with open arms, admitted their former mistake, and urged him to become a member of the community. His stay at Pomposa seems to have been only of short duration, for he soon returned to Arezzo. Regarding the remaining days of the reformer, traditional reports vary. M. Faulty (Studi su Guido Monaco, 1882) holds that Guido ended his days at Arezzo, while others are of the opinion, based upon the chronicle and other evidences of a Camaldolese monastery near Avellano, that Guido died there as prior in the year 1050. Guido himself has left to posterity in his "Epistola Michaeli monaco Pomposiano" (reprinted in Gerbert's Scriptures, ii) a naive but lively description of his, for the most part, eventful life, its trials and bitterness, and his final triumph over the opponents of his innovations.

In order to realize the importance of Guido's services to musical progress and development it is necessary to take a glance at the systems of the notation in use before his time. Since in the early Church the liturgical melodies were not very numerous and were in daily use, they were easily perpetuated by oral transmission among the clergy, the chanters, and the people; but, as Christian hymnody developed with the expansion of the liturgy, and as the number of feasts increased the melodies became too numerous to be learned and retained by the memory without the aid of some unchangeable means. The absence of this determining means, the frequent carelessness of copyists, the temperament and even caprice of singers, and the great variety of conditions under which they were propagated and performed caused the melodies to undergo numerous changes. The necessity for a system of notation which would clearly record the various intervals of the melodies became more and more urgent. While in theoretical treatises the practice of the Greeks of employing the first fifteen letters of the alphabet to designate the various intervals was still in use, there was no means at hand by which the intervals and rhythm of a melody;might be graphically displayed, so that anyone might learn it from a manuscript without the aid of a master. The so-called neumatic notation (from meuma, a nod), which probably in the eighth century found its way from the Orient into the Latin Church, where it suffered many modifications, had mainly a rhythmical purpose, and was intended to serve only in a general way a diastematic end, i.e. an indication of the intervals of the melody. An attempt to indicate the intervals with greater precision was made by placing the neumatic signs at a lesser or greater distance from the words comprising the text, and, in order to obtain more exact results from this proceeding, the copyist would draw a line upon which he would place one of the letters of the alphabet and from which he would measure the distance of the melodic steps above or below. It is held that Guido found two such lines in use, namely, a red one upon which F was placed, and a yellow one for C, indicating the place of the tones represented by these letters of the alphabet and employed by theorists of his time. His great improvement consisted in adding two more lines to the existing ones, in utilizing the spaces between the lines themselves and in indicating, by combining the letters of the alphabet with the neumatic signs, not only the various intervals of the melody, but also its rhythm. This system, called staff-notation, has been used ever since. The reason why only four lines were used, instead of the five we employ, is that these four and the five spaces were regarded as sufficient for the ambitus, or range, of the average Gregorian melody. In the course of time as the melodies were transcribed into the new notation, the neumatic signs formerly in use evolved into our present notes, and the letters F and C became the clefs of later times. Guido's influence was so great in his time that many things have been attributed to him which belong to a later period; but which are elaborations and developments of his teachings. The impetus he gave to musical progress lasted throughout the Middle Ages. Especially did incipient polyphony advance by his advocacy of contrary motion of the voices as against the still prevailing parallelism. Of the works attributed to him, the following are undoubtedly authentic: "Micrologus de disciplina artis musicae', which treatise, especially the fifteenth chapter, is invaluable to present-day students endeavoring to ascertain the original rhythmical and melodic form of the Gregorian chant; "Regulae de ignoto cantu", prologue to his antiphonarium in staff-notation; "Epistola Michaeli monaco de ignoto cantu directa:. All these were reproduced in Gerbert's "Scriptores", ii, 2-50.

Falchi, Studi su Guido monaco (1882); Les melodies gregoriennes d'apres la tradition (Tournai, 1880); Ambros, Geschichie der Musik, II (Leipzig, 1880), 144-216; Riemann, Handbuch der Musikgeschichte, I (Leipzig, 1905), ii.

Bibliography

Sources

Books

• Atkinson, Charles M. (2008). The Critical Nexus: Tone-System, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972238-9.

Journal and encyclopedia articles

• Grier, James (2018). "Guido of Arezzo". Oxford Bibliographies: Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199757824-0248. (subscription required)
• Haines, John (2008). "The Origins of the Musical Staff". The Musical Quarterly. 91 (3/4). Oxford University Press: 327–378. doi:10.1093/musqtl/gdp002. JSTOR 20534535.
• Herlinger, Jan (2004). "Guido d'Arezzo". In Kleinhenz, Christopher (ed.). Medieval Italy: An Encyclopedia. Abingdon-on-Thames: Taylor & Francis.
• Hughes, Andrew (2001). "Aribo". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.01233. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required)
• Mafucci, Angelo (2003). "Guido d'Arezzo: I primi venti anni della sua vita" [Guido d'Arezzo: The First Twenty Years of His Life]. Rivista Internationale di Musica Sacra (in Italian). 24 (2): 111–122. Reprinted on musicologie.org.
• Miller, Samuel D. (Autumn 1973). "Guido d'Arezzo: Medieval Musician and Educator". Journal of Research in Music Education. 21 (3): 239–245. doi:10.2307/3345093. JSTOR 3345093. S2CID 143833782.
• Palisca, Claude V. (2001a). "Guido of Arezzo". Grove Music Online. Revised by Dolores Pesce. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.11968. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 19 September 2020. (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required)
• Palisca, Claude (2001b). "Johannes Cotto". Grove Music Online. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14349. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required)
• Ruini, Cesarino (2004). "Guido d'Arezzo". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). Vol. 64. Treccani.
• "Guido d'Arezzo | Italian musician | Britannica". Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020.

Further reading

See Grier (2018) for an extensive bibliography

Books

• Hoppin, Richard (1978). Medieval Music. The Norton Introduction to Music History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-09090-1.
• Lyons, Stuart (2010). Music in the Odes of Horace. Oxford: Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-844-7.
• Mengozzi, Stefano (2010). The Renaissance Reform of Medieval Music Theory: Guido of Arezzo Between Myth and History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88415-0.
• Oesch, Hans [in German] (1978). Guido von Arezzo: Biographisches und Theoretisches unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der sogenannten odonischen Traktate [Guido von Arezzo: Biographical and theoretical matters with special consideration of the so-called odonic treatises]. Publikationen der Schweizerischen Musikforschenden Gesellschaft (in German). Bern: P. Haupt. OCLC 527452.
• Pesce, Dolores (2010). "Guido d'Arezzo, Ut queant laxis, and Musical Understanding". In Murray, Russell E; Weiss, Susan Forscher; Cyrus, Cynthia J. (eds.). Music Education in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 25–36. ISBN 978-0-253-00455-0.

Journal and encyclopedia articles

• Berger, Carol (1981). "The Hand and the Art of Memory". Musica Disciplina. 35. American Institute of Musicology Verlag Corpusmusicae, GmbH: 87–120. JSTOR 20532236.
• Carey, Norman; Clampitt, David (Spring 1996). "Regions: A Theory of Tonal Spaces in Early Medieval Treatises". Journal of Music Theory. 40 (1). Duke University Press: 113–147. JSTOR 843924.
• Fuller, Sarah (January–June 1981). "Theoretical Foundations of Early Organum Theory". Acta Musicologica. 53 (Fasc. 1). International Musicological Society: 52–84. doi:10.2307/932569. JSTOR 932569.
• Green, Edward (December 2007). "What Is Chapter 17 of Guido's 'Micrologus' about? A Proposal for a New Answer". International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music. 38 (2): 143–170. JSTOR 25487523.
• Huglo, Michel (1988). "Bibliographie des éditions et études relatives à la théorie musicale du Moyen Âge (1972–1987)" [Bibliography of Editions and Studies Relating to Medieval Music Theory (1972–1987)]. Acta Musicologica. 60 (Fasc. 3). Basel: International Musicological Society: 229–272 [252]. doi:10.2307/932753. JSTOR 932753.
• Mengozzi, Stefano (Summer 2006). "Virtual Segments: The Hexachordal System in the Late Middle Ages". The Journal of Musicology. 23 (3). University of California Press: 426–467. doi:10.1525/jm.2006.23.3.426. JSTOR 10.1525/jm.2006.23.3.426.
• Reisenweaver, Anna J. (2012). "Guido of Arezzo and His Influence on Music Learning". Musical Offerings. 3 (1): 55–63. doi:10.15385/jmo.2012.3.1.4.
• Russell, Tilden A. (Spring 1981). "A Poetic Key to a Pre-Guidonian Palm and the 'Echemata'". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 34 (1). University of California Press: 109–118. doi:10.2307/831036. JSTOR 831036.
• Sullivan, Blair (1989). "Interpretive Models of Guido of Arezzo's Micrologus" (PDF). Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies. 20 (1): 20–42.
• van Waesberghe, Jos Smits [in Dutch] (1951). "The Musical Notation of Guido of Arezzo". Musica Disciplina. 5. American Institute of Musicology Verlag Corpusmusicae, GmbH: 15–53. JSTOR 20531824.
• van Waesberghe, Jos Smits [in Dutch] (1951). "Guido of Arezzo and Musical Improvisation". Musica Disciplina. 5. American Institute of Musicology Verlag Corpusmusicae, GmbH: 55–63. JSTOR 20531825.

External links

• Free scores by Guido of Arezzo at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
• List of compositions by Guido of Arezzo at the Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music
• Manuscripts of works by Guido at The British Library
• Transcription of the Micrologus in Latin on the Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum of the Indiana University Jacobs School of Music
• Digitized 12th-century manuscript of four works by Guido of Arezzo (bound with a copy of Boethius' De Musica) at Alexander Turnbull Library